World Shrinks

The World Shrinks, 1450 – 1750

Summary: A new era of world history, the early modern period, was present between 1450 and 1750. The balance of power between world civilizations shifted as the West became the most dynamic force. Other rising power centers included the empires of the Ottomans, Mughals, Ming, and Russians.

On the Eve of the Early Modern Period: The World Around 1450.
New or expanded civilization areas, in contact with leading centers, had developed during the postclassical period. A monarchy formed in Russia. Although western Europeans did not achieve political unity, they built regional states, expanded commercial and urban life, and established elaborate artistic and philosophical culture. In sub-Saharan Africa, loosely organized areas shared vitality with new regional states; trade and artistic expression grew. Chinese-influenced regions, like Japan, built more elaborate societies. Some cultures – African, Polynesian, American – continued to develop in isolation. In Asia, Africa, and Europe between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, the key developments were the decline of Islamic dynamism and the Mongol conquests. After 1400, a new Chinese empire emerged and the Ottoman Empire reformed the Islamic world.

The Rise of the West
The West, initially led by Spain and Portugal, won domination of international trade routes and established settlements in the Americas, Africa and Asia. The West changed rapidly internally because of agricultural, commercial, political, and religious developments. A scientific revolution reshaped Western culture.

The World Economy and Global Contacts
The world network expanded well beyond previous linkages. African, American, Polynesian, and Australian societies came into contact with new cultures. By 1750, few societies remained isolated. Diseases, plants, and animals passed to new regions. An important change occurred when the West set up relationships producing dependence and subordination in the international economy.

World Boundaries
From 1450 to 1750, the world saw an unusually high number of boundary changes. The spread of Western colonies was the most obvious, but the establishment or extension of several large land-based empires was almost as significant.

The Gunpowder Empires
The evolution of new weaponry, such as cannon and muskets, on land and sea spurred imperial expansion by the West and the Ottoman Turks. The Russian, Persian Safavid, Mughal Indian, and Qing Chinese empires relied on the new technology. Guns were also important in Japan and Africa.

Themes
Key themes of world history changed. The effect of nomadic societies declined after the Mongol invasions. New gunpowder states conquered many of their lands. The nomads’ role as intermediaries was replaced by relations between states and merchants. Gender relations remained mostly unchanged, but labor systems were transformed by a great expansion of slavery and serfdom. The accumulating wealth and increasing cultural contacts created new opportunities in all fields for a few individuals. Drastic environmental change occurred because of the movement of foods, animals, and diseases.

Civilizations and Larger Trends.
Three international trends – Western expansion, intensification and globalization of the world commercial network, and the military and political results of gunpowder – influenced all civilizations. Differing responses spurred different courses of evolution in separate cultures.

The World Economy
The rise of the West from the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening and redefining of relationships among world societies. During the classical era, larger regional economies and culture zones had developed, as in the Chinese Middle Kingdom and the Mediterranean basin, but international exchanges were not of fundamental importance to the societies involved. During the postclassical period, contacts increased and were more significant. Missionary religions – Buddhism and Islam – and trade influenced important changes. The new world relationships after 1450 spelled a new period of world history. The Americas and other world areas were joined to the world network, while older regions had increased contacts. Trade became so significant that new relationships emerged among societies and prompted reconsiderations of existing political and cultural traditions.

 

The West’s First Outreach: Maritime Power
Europeans had become more aware of the outside world since the beginning of the twelfth (1100) century. Knowledge gained during the Crusades and from contacts with the great Mongol Empire spurred interest. European upper classes became used to imports, especially spices, brought from India and Southeast Asia to the Middle East by Arab vessels, and then carried to Europe by traders from Italian city-states. The fall of the Mongol dynasty in China, the strength of the Ottoman Empire, lack of gold to pay for imports, and poor naval technology hindered efforts for change. Europeans launched more consistent attempts for expansion from the late thirteenth century.

New Technology: A Key to Power
Technological improvements during the fifteenth century changed the equation. Deep-draft, round-hulled ships were able to sail in the Atlantic’s waters. Improved metalwork techniques allowed the vessels to carry armaments for superior to the weapons aboard ships of other societies. The compass and better mapmaking improved navigational skills.

Portugal and Spain Lead the Pack
The initiative for Atlantic exploration came from Portugal. Prince Henry the Navigator directed explorations motivated by Christian missionary zeal, the excitement of discovery, and a thirst for wealth. From 1434, Portuguese vessels, searching for a route to India, traveled ever farther southward along the African coast. In 1488, they passed the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1497. Many voyages followed. One, blown off course, reached Brazil. By 1514, the Portuguese had reached Indonesia and China. In 1542, they arrived in Japan and began Catholic missionary activity. Fortresses were established in African and Asian ports. The Spanish quickly followed the Portuguese example. Columbus reached the Americas in 1492, mistakenly called their inhabitants Indians. Spain gained papal approval for its claims over most of Latin America; a later decision gave Brazil to Portugal. Sixteenth century expeditions brought the Spanish as far north as the southwestern United States. Ferdinand Magellan began a Spanish voyage in 1519 that circumnavigated the globe. As a result, Spain claimed the Philippines.

Northern European Expeditions
In the sixteenth century, the exploratory initiative moved from the Portuguese and Spanish to strong northern European states – Britain, Holland, and France. They had improved oceanic vessel design, while Portugal and Spain were busy digesting their colonial gains. The British naval victory over Spain in 1588 left general ocean dominance to northern nations. The French first crossed the Atlantic in 1534 and soon established settlements in Canada. The British reached North America in 1497, beginning colonization of its east coast during the seventeenth century. The Dutch also had holdings in the Americas. They won control of Indonesia from the Portuguese by the early seventeenth century, and in the middle of the century established a relay settlement on the southern tip of Africa. French, Dutch, and British traders received government-awarded monopolies of trade in supervision. They gained great profits and acted like independent political entities.

In Depth: Causation and the West’s Expansion
Historians desiring to understand social change have to study causation. The many factors involved in any one case make precise answers impossible, but when sufficient data are available, high probability can be attained. Scholars looking for single-factor determinants use cultural, technological, economic, or “great man” theories as explanations. All of the approaches raise as many questions as answers. The best understanding is reached through debate based on all efforts chosen as explanations.

Toward a World Economy
Europe’s new maritime activity had three major consequences for world history: the creation of a new international pool for exchanges of food, diseases, and manufactured products; the forming of a more inclusive world economy; and the opening of some parts of the world to Western colonization.

 

 

The Columbian Exchange of Disease and Food
The extension of international interaction facilitated the spread of disease. Native Americans and Polynesians, lacking natural immunities to smallpox and measles, died in huge numbers. In the Americas, Europeans forged new populations form their own peoples and through importation of African slaves. New World crops spread rapidly. American corn and the potato became important in Europe; corn and the sweet potato similarly changed life in China and Africa. Major population increases resulted. The use of tobacco, sugar, and coffee slowly became widespread in Europe. European and Asian animals passed to the New World.

The West’s Commercial Outreach
Westerners, because of their superior military might, dominated international trade, but they did not displace all rivals. Asian shipping continued in Chinese and Japanese coastal waters, Muslim traders predominated along the East African littoral, and Turks were active in the Eastern Mediterranean. Little inland territory was conquered in Africa or Asia; the Europeans sought secure harbors and built fortifications to protect their commerce and serve as contact places for inland traders. When effective indigenous states opposed such bases, Europeans gained protected trading enclaves within their cities.

Imbalances in World Trade
By the seventeenth century a new world economy, dominated by Europeans, had formed. Spain and Portugal briefly held leadership, but their economies and banking systems could not meet the new demands. England, France, and Holland, the core nations, established more durable economic dominance. They expanded manufacturing operations to meet new market conditions. The doctrines of mercantilism protected home markets and supported exports; tariff policies discouraged competition from colonies and foreign rivals. Beyond Europe, areas became dependent participants in the world economy as producers and suppliers of low-cost raw materials; in return they received European manufactured items. Africa entered the world network mainly as a slave supplier. The European controlled commercial and shipping services.

A System of International Inequality
The rise of core and dependent economic zones became an enduring factor in world economic relationships. Some participants in the dependent regions had an opportunity for profit. African slave traders and rulers taxing the trade could become rich. Indigenous merchants in Latin America satisfied regional food requirements. Many peasants in all regions remained untouched by international markets. Still, indigenous merchants and landlords did not control their terms of trade; the wealth gained was expended on European imports and did not stimulate local manufacturing or general economic advance. Dependence in the world economy helped form a coercive labor system. The necessity for cheap products produced in the Americas resulted in exploitation of indigenous populations or use of slaves. In the Dutch East Indies and British India, peasants were forced into labor systems.

How Much World in the World Economy?
Huge world areas remained outside the world economy. They were not affected politically or economically by its structure, and until the eighteenth century did not greatly suffer from the missed opportunities for profit or technological advance. East Asian civilizations did not need European products; they concentrated on consumption and regional commerce. China was uninterested in international concentrated on consumption or regional commerce. China was uninterested in international trading involvement and remained mainly outside the world economy until the end of the eighteenth century. China was powerful enough to keep Europeans in check. Some limited trade was permitted in Portuguese Macao, and European desire for Chinese manufactured items made China the leading recipient of American silver. In Japan, early openness to Europeans, in missionary activity and interest in military technology, quickly ended. Most contacts were prohibited from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Mughal India, the Ottoman Empire, and Safavid Persia all allowed minimal trade with Europeans but concentrated on their own internal development. Russia and African regions not participating in the slave trade were outside the international economic orbit.

The Expansionist Trend
European dominance spread to new areas during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. British and French merchants strengthened their positions as the Mughal Empire began falling apart. Britain passed legislation designed to turn their holdings into dependent regions. Tariffs blocked cottons from competing with British production. India’s complex economy survived, but with a weakened international status. Eastern Europe joined world economic activity by exporting grain, mainly produced by serfs working on large estates, from Prussia, Poland, and Russia, to the West.

Colonial Expansion
Western colonial dominance over many peoples accompanied the new world economic network. Two types of American colonies emerged, in Latin America and the Caribbean, and in North America. Smaller colonies were present in Africa and Asia.

The Americas: Loosely Controlled Colonies
Spain quickly colonized West Indian islands; in 1509 settlement began on the mainland in Panama. Military expeditions conquered the Aztecs and Incas. The early colonies were formed by small bands of adventurers loosely controlled by European administrations. The settlers ruthlessly sought gold; when thee were substantial Indian populations, they exacted tribute without imposing much administration. As agricultural settlements were established, Spanish and Portuguese officials created more formal administration. Missionary activity added another layer of administration. Northern Europeans began colonial activity during the early seventeenth century. The French settled in Canada and explored the Mississippi River basin. The Dutch and English occupied coastal Atlantic territories. All three nations colonized West Indian islands and built slave-based economies.

British and French North America: Backwater Colonies
North American colonial patterns differed from those in Latin America and the Caribbean. Religious refugees came to British territories. Land grants to major proprietors stimulated the recruitment of settlers. The French in Canada planned the establishment of manorial estates under the control of great lords controlled by the state. French peasants emigrated in small numbers but increased settlement through a high birth rate. The Catholic Church held a strong position. France in 1763 through the Treaty of Paris surrendered Canada and the Mississippi basin t the British. The French inhabitants remained unhappy with British rule, but many American loyalists arrived after the 1776 revolution. The North American colonies had less value to their rulers than did Asian or West Indian possessions. The value of the exports and imports of their small populations was insignificant. Continuing settler arrival occurred as Indian populations declined through disease and warfare, Indians and Europeans did not form new cultural groups as they did in Latin America; Indians instead moved westward where they developed a culture based on the imported European horse. North American colonial societies developed following European patterns. British colonies formed assemblies based on broad male participation. The colonists also avidly consumed Enlightenment political ideas. Trade and manufacturing developed widely, and a strong merchant class appeared. The colonists retained vigorous cultural ties with Europe; an unusual percentage of the settlers were literate. The importation of African slaves and slavery separated the North America experience from European patterns.

North America and Western Civilization
Western habits had been transplanted into a new setting. Americans married earlier, had more children, and displayed an unusual concern for children, but they still reproduced the European-style family. When British colonists revolted against their rulers, they did so under Western-inspired political and economic ideology. Once successful, they were the first to implement some of the principal concepts of that ideology.

Africa and Asia: Coastal Trading Stations
In Africa, most Europeans were confined, because of climate, disease, geographical barriers, and African strength, to coastal trading forts. The exceptions were in Angola and South Africa. The Portuguese sent disruptive slaving expeditions into Angola form established coastal centers. In South Africa, the Dutch founded Cape Town in 1652 as a settlement for supplying ships on the way ot southeastern Asia. The settlers expanded into nearby regions where they met and fought indigenous hunters and herding peoples. Later they began wars with the Bantu. European settlements in Asia also were minimal. Spain moved into the Philippines and began Christianizing activities; the Dutch East India Company administered parts of Indonesia and briefly had a presence in Taiwan. Asian colonization began a new phase when France and Britain, with forts along both coasts, began to compete for control in India as Mughal authority declined. Outright war began in 1744, with each side allying with Indian princes. French defeat destroyed their power in India. British victories over Indians in Bengal from the 1750s further increased British power. In India, as in most African and Asian territories, and unlike in the Americas, European administration remained limited. Officials were satisfied to conclude agreements with indigenous rulers European cultural effect was slight and few settlers, apart from the Dutch in South Africa, took up residence. Only in the Philippines were may indigenous peoples drawn to Christianity.

Effect on Western Europe
Colonial development affected western Europe economically and diplomatically. Colonial rivalries added to the persisting hostilities between nations. The Seven Years’ War, fought in Europe, Asia, and America, was the first worldwide war. The colonies brought new wealth to Europe, profiting merchants and manufacturers. New products changed lifestyles: once-costly sugar became available to ordinary people.

The Effect of a New World Order
The development of a world economy and European colonialism had major effects. Economic pressures brought important changes. African populations were disrupted by the slave trade. Indian manufacturing levels declined. New labor systems formed in many regions. The interaction between civilizations was significant. New elements entered the world history framework. Indigenous responses, as with Christianity, combined their ideas with the arriving influences. Despite the many hardships imposed on many societies, some benefits resulted. New food crops and increased trade allowed population growth. Challenges had been created for all civilizations, and whatever the individual reaction, innovation was required.

Global Connections: The World Economy and the World
The relationships between Europe’s and the world’s economy were complex, ranging from conscious isolation to controlled participation to dependency. The world was growing closer, but it was not necessarily becoming simpler.

Key Terms
Vasco da Gama: Portuguese mariner; first European to reach India by sea in 1498.

Christopher Columbus: Italian navigator in the service of Aragon and Castile; sailed West to find a route to India and instead discovered the Americas in 1492.

East India Companies: British, French, and Dutch trading companies that obtained government monopolies of trade to India and Asia; acted independently in their regions.

World economy: Created by Europeans during the late sixteenth century; based on control of the seas; established an international exchange of foods, diseases, and manufactured products.

Columbian Exchange: Interaction between Europe and the Americas; millions of Native Americans died of new diseases; new world crops spread to other world regions; European and Asian animals came to the Americas.

Lepanto: Naval battle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire resulting in Spanish victory in 1571; demonstrated European naval superiority over Muslims.

Core nations: Nations, usually European, that profited form the world economy; controlled international banking and commercial services; exported manufactured goods and imported raw materials.

Dependent economic zones: Regions within the world economy that produced raw materials; dependent on European markets and shipping; tendency to build systems based n forced and cheap labor.

Vasco de Balboa: Began first Spanish settlement on Mesoamerican mainland in 1509.

New France: French colonies in Canada and elsewhere; extended along the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes and down into the Mississippi River valley system.

Atlantic colonies: British colonies in North America along Atlantic coast form New England to Georgia.

Treaty of Paris: Concluded in 1763 after the Seven Years’ War; Britain gained New France and ended France’s importance in India.

Cape Colony: Dutch colony established at Cape of Good Hope in 1652 to provide a coastal station for Dutch ships traveling to and from the East Indies; settlers expanded and fought with Bantu and other Africans.

Boers: Dutch and other Europeans settlers in Cape Colony before nineteenth century British occupation; later called Afrikaners.

Calcutta: British East India Company headquarters in Bengal; captured in 1756 by Indians; later became administrative center for populous Bengal.

Seven Years’ War: Fought in Europe, Africa, and Asia between 1756 and 1763; the first worldwide war.

Fill in the blank

1. In the fifteenth century, Portuguese sailors ventured around the ______________, planning to find India and to reach the eastern African coast.

2. A Spanish expedition under _________________ set sail westward in 1519 and eventually sailed around the world.

3. The Dutch and British _______________________ were semiprivate companies, formed by pooling merchant capital and amassing great fortunes in commerce in Asia.

4. Even in Japan, where a firm isolationist policy was launched after 1600, Dutch traders secured special access to the port of _______________________.

5. The rulers of India’s new _____________________ Empire in the sixteenth century were interested in some contact with Western traders.

6. The Dutch established a settlement called ______________________ in 1652 at the Cape of Good Hope to provide a coastal station for the Dutch sea-borne empire.

7. Only after 1770 did the expanding Dutch _________________________ settlements directly conflict with the Bantu farmers, opening a long battle for control of southern Africa.

8. British and French rivalry over control of India culminated in outright warfare in 1744 during the _________________________

9. The ___________________________ colonies of Britain in North America differed from other settlements in that they operated their own assemblies and developed internal trade.

10. Under the terms of the ______________________, that in 1763 settled the Seven Years’ War, France lost its colonies in North America, but regained its West Indian sugar islands.

True or False

1. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498 with the aid of a Hindu pilot picked up in East Africa.

2. A Spanish-directed fleet inflicted a decisive defeat on the navy of the kingdom of Portugal at the battle of Lepanto in 1571.

3. The British passed tariffs against the import of Indian cotton in favor of using India as a market for British-processed goods and a source of relatively cheap cash crops such as tea.

4. The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope immediately came into conflict with the Bantu farmers who had settled in the region previously.

5. North American colonists developed a merchant class and some stake in manufacturing in a pattern rather similar to that taking shape in western Europe.

6. The first Spanish settlement on the American mainland was established in 1509 under the able adventurer, Dias.

7. A Portuguese prince, Henry the navigator, directed a series of expeditions along the African coast and outward to islands such as the Azores.

8. The cultural interaction that took place with often disastrous consequences following the discovery of the Americas by Europeans is called the “Columbian Exchange.”

9. The doctrine of capitalism urged that a nation-state export as widely as possible in its own ships and not import goods from outside.

10. The British gained the island of Cyprus off the mainland of Asia Minor from the Dutch.