The effects of the external and internal settings on managers and the importance of equal employment opportunity are critical to understand as you make employment deci­sions. The interaction between an organization and its environment has important implications for internal organization and structure.
For example, as the organization interacts with its environment, it will organize human resources to achieve specific objectives and perform different functions. The organization will formally group the activities to be done by its human resources into basic units. These basic units of the organization structure are referred to as jobs.
Jobs can be designed so as to best contribute to the objectives of the organization and at the same time satisfy the needs of the employees who are to perform them.
The value of job analysis, which defines clearly and precisely the requirements of each job, is quite fundamental to HR planning. Job require­ments provide the foundation for making objective and legally defensible decisions in managing human resources. Several innovative job design techniques can increase employee job satisfaction while improving organizational performance.

 

The Role and Importance of Jobs

Work must be divided into manageable units and ultimately into jobs that can be performed by employees. A job consists of a group ofrelated activities and duties. Ideally, the duties of a job should consist of natural units of work that are similar and related. They should be clear and distinct from those of other jobs to mini­mize misunderstanding and conflict among employees and to enable employees to recognize what is expected of them.

Job
A group of related
activities and duties

        For some jobs, several employees may be required, each of whom will occupy a separate position. Aposition consists of different duties and responsibilities performed by only one employee. In a city li­brary, for example, four employees (four positions) may be involved in reference work, but all of them have only one job (reference librarian).

Position
The different duties and
responsibilities performed by
only one employee

 

Role of Jobs in the Organization

Within an organization, each job is designed to facilitate the achievement of the organization’s objectives. This is accomplished by coordinating the contents of jobs in order to perform particular functions or activities. Since all organizations experience change, individual jobs and the relationships between jobs should be continually studied to ensure an efficient work arrangement.
Furthermore, de­lineation of jobs within the organization facilitates the division of work. If the duties of each job are made clear and distinct from those of other jobs, it is less likely that any activity required to be performed within the organization will be neglected or duplicated.
The contribution that jobs make to organizational success has become an important new concern of managers. The cause of this concern is the effect that unproductive job duties and responsibilities have on organizational productivity.
Restrictive work rules and inflexible job duties contribute to the “productivity gap” between American and European and Asian manufacturing industries. Therefore it is not surprising that approaches like job redesign, the increased use ofemployee work teams, and flexible work schedules are touted as significant new means to improve worker productivity and organizational performance.

 

 

Changing Role of Jobs in Society

The creation of jobs contributes to the economic prosperity of a community and of the nation as a whole. Yet according to a special study reported by the U.S. Department of Labor, the last years of this century will bring new developments in technology, international competition, demography, and other factors that will alter the nation's job structure. Manufacturing jobs will continue to decline and new jobs in service industries will demand much higher skill levels. The fu­ture workplace will need employees with strong skills in communications and mathematical and technical knowledge.
Unfortunately, a large number of new job entrants will lack the qualifications needed to perform successfully in the growth occupations. Organizations must establish training pro­grams to upgrade employee skills. This situation, unless corrected, portends a shift of jobs from the United States to those countries able to provide a well-trained workforce and, consequently, a likely decline in the American standard of living. Inflexibility in certain European countries in job restructuring, usually forced by strong unions, is already having a negative impact in exports. This works to the advantage of the developing countries.

 

Relationship of Job Requirements and HRM Functions

Job requirements are the different duties, tasks, and responsibilities that make up a job. Not surprisingly, job requirements influence many of the HR functions that are performed as a part of managing employees. When job requirements are modified in any way, it may be necessary to make corresponding changes in HRM activities.

Job requirements
The duties, tasks, and
responsibilities that
make up a job

 

Recruitment

Before they can find capable employees for an organization, recruiters need to know the job specifications for the positions they are to fill. A job specification is a statement of the knowledge, skills, and abilities required of the person per­forming the job. In a typical HR department, the job specification for senior personnel analyst includes the following:

1.    Graduation from a four-year college with major course work (minimum fifteen hours) in human resources management
2.    Three to five years’ experience in employee classification and compensation or selection or recruitment

• Two years’ experience in developing/improving job-related compensation and testing instruments and procedures

Job specification
Statement of the needed knowledge, skills,
and abilities of the person who
is to perform the job

Because job specifications establish the qualifications required of applicants for a job opening, they serve an essential role in the recruiting function. These qualifications typically are contained in the notices of job openings. Whether posted on organization bulletin boards or included in help-wanted advertise­ments or employment agency listings, job specifications provide a basis for at­tracting qualified applicants and discouraging unqualified ones.

 

Selection

In addition to job specifications, HR recruiters and supervisors will use job descriptions to select and orient employees to jobs. A job description is a statement of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job.

Job description
Statement of the tasks, duties, and
responsibilities of a job
to be performed

In the past, job specifications used as a basis for selection sometimes bore little relation to the duties to be performed under the job description. Examples of such nonjob-related specifications abounded. Appli­cants for the job of laborer were required to have a high school diploma. Firefighters were required to be at least six feet tall. And applicants for the job of truck driver were required to be male. These kinds of job specifications served to discriminate against mem­bers of certain protected classes, many of whom were excluded from these jobs.
Since the landmark Griggs v Duke Power case and the Civil Rights Act of 1991, employers must be able to show that the job specifi­cations used in selecting employees for a particular job relate specifically to the duties of that job. An organization must be careful to ensure that man­agers with job openings do not hire employees based on “individualized” job requirements that satisfy personal whims but bear little relation to successful job performance.

 

Training and Development

Any discrepancies between the knowledge, skills, and abilities (often referred to as KSA) demonstrated by a jobholder and the requirements contained in the description and specification for that job provide clues to training needs. Also, career development as a part of the training function is concerned with prepar­ing employees for advancement to jobs where their capacities can be utilized to the fullest extent possible. The formal qualification requirements set forth in high-level jobs serve to indicate how much more training and development are needed for employees to advance to those jobs.

 

Performance Appraisal

The requirements contained in the description of a job provide the criteria for evaluating the performance of the holder of that job. The results of performance appraisal may reveal, however, that certain requirements established for a job are not completely valid. These criteria must be spe­cific and job-related. If the criteria used to evaluate employee performance are vague and not job-related, employers may find themselves being charged with unfair discrimination.

 

Compensation Management

In determining the rate to be paid for performing a job, the relative worth of the job is one of the most important factors. This worth is based on what the job de­mands of an employee in terms of skill, effort, and responsibility, as well as the conditions and hazards under which the work is performed. The Systems of job evaluation by which this worth may be measured are complex but necessary to insure workplace justice and fairness.
Job Analysis

Job analysis is sometimes called the cornerstone of HRM because the infor­mation it collects serves so many HRM functions. Job analysis is the process of obtaining information about jobs by determining what the duties, tasks, or activities of those jobs are.

Job analysis
Process of obtaining information about
jobs by determining what the duties,
tasks, or activities of jobs are

        The procedure involves undertaking a systematic investigation of jobs by following a number of predetermined steps specified in ad­vance of the study. When completed, job analysis results in a written report summarizing the information obtained from the analysis of twenty or thirty in­dividual job tasks or activities.
HR managers will use these data to develop job descriptions and job specifications. These documents, in turn, will be used to perform and enhance the different HR functions such as the development of per­formance appraisal criteria or the content of training classes. The ultimate pur­pose of job analysis is to improve organizational performance and productivity. The scheme below illustrates how job analysis is performed, including the functions for which it is used.

THE PROCESS OF JOB ANALYSIS

 

As contrasted with job design, which reflects subjective opinions about the ideal requirements of a job, job analysis is concerned with objective and verifi­able information about the actual requirements of a job. The job descriptions and job specifications developed through job analysis should be as accurate as possible if they are to be of value to those who make HRM decisions. These decisions may involve any of the HR functions--from recruitment to termina­tion of employees.

 

The Job Analyst’s Responsibilities

Conducting job analysis is usually the primary responsibility of the HR depart­ment. If this department is large enough to have a division for compensation management, job analysis may be performed by members of that division.
Staff members of the HR department who specialize in job analysis have the title of job analyst or personnel analyst. Since the job carrying this title re­quires a high degree of analytical ability and writing skill, it sometimes serves as an entry-level job for college graduates who choose a career in HRM. The job description for a job analyst, shown below, is taken from the U.S. Department of Labor’s Dictionary of Occupational Titles, which is available on the department’s website. This is a valuable resource for the Job Analyst.

JOB DESCRIPTION FOR A JOB ANALYST

166.267-018 JOB ANALYST (profess. & kin.) personnel analyst Collects, analyzes, and prepares occupational information to facilitate personnel, administration, and management functions of organization. Consults with management to determine type, scope, and purpose of study. Studies current organizational occupational data and compiles distribution reports, organization and flow charts, and other background information required for study. Observes jobs and interviews workers and supervisory personnel to determine job and worker requirements. Analyzes occupational data, such as physical, mental, and training requirements of jobs and workers, and develops written summaries, such as job descriptions, job specifications, and lines of career movement. Utilizes developed occupational data to evaluate or improve methods and techniques for recruiting, selection, promotion, evaluating, and training workers, and administration of related personnel programs. May specialize in classifying positions according to regulated guidelines to meet job classification requirements of civil service system and be known as POSITION CLASSIFIER (gov. ser.)

 

Although job analysts are the personnel primarily responsible for the job analysis program, they usually enlist the cooperation of the employees and managers in the departments where jobs are being analyzed. It is these managers and employees who are the sources of much of the information about the jobs, and they may be asked to prepare rough drafts of the job descriptions and speci­fications the job analysts need.

 

 

Gathering Job Information

Job data may be obtained in several ways. The more common methods of analyz­ing jobs are through interviews, questionnaires, observation, and diaries.

• Interviews. The job analyst may question individual employees and managers about the job under review.
• Questionnaires. The job analyst may circulate carefully prepared questionnaires to be filled out individually by jobholders and managers. These forms will be used to obtain data in the areas of job duties and tasks performed, purpose of the job, physical setting, requirements for performing the job (skill, education, experience, physical and mental demands), equipment and materials used, and special health and safety concerns.
• Observation. The job analyst may learn about the jobs by observing and recording on a standardized form the activities of jobholders. Videotaping jobs for later study is an approach used by some organizations.
• Diaries. Jobholders themselves may be asked to keep a diary of their work activities during an entire work cycle. Diaries are normally filled out at specific times of the work shift (e.g., every half-hour or hour) and maintained for a two- to four-week period.

 

Controlling the Accuracy of Job Information

If job analysis is to accomplish its intended purpose, the job data collected must be accurate. Care must be taken to ensure that all important facts are included. A job analyst should be alert for employees who tend to exaggerate the difficulty of their jobs in order to inflate their egos and their paychecks.
When interview­ing employees or reviewing their questionnaires, the job analyst must look for any responses that do not agree with other facts or impressions the analyst has received. Furthermore, when job information is collected from employees, a rep­resentative group of individuals should be surveyed.
Whenever a job analyst doubts the accuracy of information provided by employees, he or she should obtain additional information from them, from their managers, or from other individuals who are familiar with or perform the same job. It is common practice to have the descriptions for each job reviewed by the jobholders and their managers. The job description summaries contained in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles can also serve as a basis for the job ana­lyst’s review.
Finally, the traditional approach to job analysis assumes a static job envi­ronment. However, as jobs change, job analysis data become inaccurate. Out­dated job analysis information can hinder an organization’s ability to adapt to change. Downsizing, computerization, the demands of small organizations, or the need to respond to global changes can alter the nature of jobs and the characteristics of individuals needed to successfully perform them. Therefore, a future-oriented approach to job analysis is recommended when organizations an­ticipate rapid change.

 

The DOT and Job Analysis

Commonly referred to as the DOT, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles is com­piled by the U.S. Department of Labor. It contains standardized and comprehen­sive descriptions of about 20,000 jobs. The purpose of the DOT is to “group occupations into a systematic occupational classification structure based on in­terrelationships of job tasks and requirements.” This grouping of occupational classifications is done under a coding system.
The DOT has helped to bring about a greater degree of uniformity in the job titles and descriptions used by employers in different sections of the USA. This uniformity has facilitated the movement of workers from sections of the country that may be experiencing widespread unemployment to areas where employment opportunities are greater.
The DOT code numbers also facilitate the exchange of statistical information about jobs. In addition, these code numbers are useful in reporting research in the HR area, in vocational counseling, and in charting career paths through job transfers and/or advancements.

 

Approaches to Job Analysis

The systematic and quantitative definition of job content that job analysis pro­vides is the foundation of many HRM practices. Specifically, it serves to justify job descriptions and other HRM selection procedures. It should be emphasized that a major goal of modern job analysis is to help the organization establish the job re­latednessof its selection requirements. Therefore these procedures help both large and small employers to meet their legal duty under EEO law.
Several different job analysis approaches are used, each with specific advantages and disadvantages. Three of the more popular methods are functional job analysis, the position analysis questionnaire system, and the critical incident method.

 

Job Descriptions

Functional Job Analysis

Developed by the U.S. Training and Employment Service, the functional job analysis (FJA) approach utilizes an inventory of the various types of functions or work activities that can constitute any job. FJA thus assumes that each job involves performing certain functions. Specifically, there are three broad worker functions that form the bases of this system: (1) data, (2) people, and (3) things. These three categories are subdivided to form a hierarchy of worker-function scales, as shown below.

Functional job analysis (FJA)
Quantitative approach to job analysis that utilizes a
compiled inventory of the various functions or work
activities that can make up any job and that assumes
that each job involves three broad worker functions:
(1) data, (2) people, and (3) things

DIFFICULTY LEVELS OF WORKER FUNCTIONS
DATA (4TH DIGIT)		PEOPLE (5TH DIGIT)		THINGS (6TH DIGIT)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6	Synthesizing Coordinating Analyzing Compiling Computing Copying Comparing	0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8	Mentoring Negotiating Instructing Supervising Diverting Persuading Speaking-signaling* Serving Taking instructions—helping	0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7	Setting-up Precision working Operating-controlling Driving-operating Manipulating Tending Feeding-offbearing Handling
*Hyphenated factors are single factors.

 

        The job analyst, when studying the job under review, will indicate the functional level for each of the three categories (for example, “copying” under “DATA”) and then reflect the relative involvement of the worker in the function by assigning a percentage figure to each function (i.e., 50 percent to “copying”). This is done for each of the three areas, and the three functional levels must equal 100 percent.
The end result is a quantita­tively evaluated job. FJA can easily be used to describe the content of jobs and to assist in writing job descriptions and specifications; it is used as a basis for the DOT code.

The Position Analysis Questionnaire System

The position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) is a quantifiable data collection method covering 194 different worker-oriented tasks. Using a five-point scale, the PAQ seeks to determine the degree, if any, to which the different tasks, or job elements, are involved in performing a particular job. The 194 different ele­ments are grouped into the six divisions shown below.

Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ)
Questionnaire covering 194 different tasks which, by
means of a five-point scale, seeks to determine the degree to which
different tasks are involved in performing
a particular job

DIVISIONS AND NUMBER OF JOB ELEMENTS IN THE PAQ
DIVISION	NUMBER OF JOB ELEMENTS
Information input (where and how does the worker get the information used in the job) Mental processes (what reasoning, decision making, planning, etc., are involved in the job) Work output (what physical activities do the workers perform, and what tools or devices do they use) Relationships with other persons (what relationships with other people are required in the job) Job context (in what physical and social contexts is the work performed) Other job characteristics	35 14 49 36 19 41

       
A sample page from the PAQ covering eleven elements of the Information Input Division is shown below. The person conducting an analysis with this questionnaire would rate each of the elements using the five-point scale shown in the upper right-hand corner of the sample page. The results obtained with the PAQ are quantitative and can be subjected to statistical analysis. The PAQ also permits dimensions of behavior to be compared across a number of jobs and permits jobs to be grouped on the basis of common characteristics.

 

 

A SAMPLE PAGE FROM THE PAQ
INFORMATION INPUT
							Extent of Use (U)
			1	INFORMATION INPUT			NA 1 2 3 4 5	Does not apply Nominal/very infrequent Occasional Moderate Considerable Very substantial
			1.1	Sources of Job Information
Rate each of the following items in terms of the extent to which it is used by the worker as a source of information in performing his job.
			1.1.1.          Visual Sources of Job Information
1 2   3   4   5 6   7   8   9     10   11	U U   U   U   U U   U   U   U     U   U	Written materials (books, reports, office notes, articles, job instructions, signs, etc.) Quantitative materials (materials which deal with quantities or amounts, such as graphs, accounts, specifications, tables of numbers, etc.) Pictorial materials (pictures or picturelike materials used as sources of information, for example, drawings, blueprints, diagrams, maps, tracings, photographic films, x-ray films, TV pictures, etc.) Patterns/related devices (templates, stencils, patterns, etc., used as sources of information when observed during use; do not include here materials described in item 3 above) Visual displays (dials, gauges, signal lights, radarscopes, speedometers, clocks, etc.) Measuring devices (rulers, calipers, tire pressure gauges, scales, thickness gauges, pipettes, thermometers, protractors, etc., used to obtain visual information about physical measurements; do not include here devices described in item 5 above) Mechanical devices (tools, equipment, machinery, and other mechanical devices which are sources of information when observed during use or operation) Materials in process (parts, materials, objects, etc., which are sources of information when being modified, worked on, or otherwise processed, such as bread dough being mixed, workpiece being turned in a lathe, fabric being cut, shoe being resoled, etc.) Materials not in process (parts, materials, objects, etc., not in the process of being changed or modified, which are sources of information when being inspected, handled, packaged, distributed, or selected, etc., such as items or materials in inventory, storage, or distribution channels, items being inspected, etc.) Features of nature (landscapes, fields, geological samples, vegetation, cloud formations, and other features of nature which are observed or inspected to provide information) Man-made features of environment (structures, buildings, dams, highways, bridges, docks, railroads, and other “man-made” or altered aspects of the indoor or outdoor environment which are observed or inspected to provide job information; do not consider equipment, machines, etc., that an individual uses in his work, as covered by item 7)

The Critical Incident Method

The objective of the critical incident method is to identify critical job tasks. Critical job tasks are those important duties and job responsibilities performed by the jobholder that lead to job success. Information about critical job tasks can be collected through interviews with employees or managers or through self-report statements written by employees.

Critical incident method

Job analysis method by which
important job tasks are identified
for job success

Suppose, for example, that the job analyst is studying the job of reference librarian. The interviewer will ask the employee to describe the job on the basis of what is done, how the job is performed, and what tools and equipment are used. The reference librarian may describe the job as follows:

I assist patrons by answering their questions related to finding books, periodicals, or other library materials. I also give them directions to help them find materials within the building. To perform my job I may have to look up materials myself or refer patrons to someone who can directly assist them. Some individuals may need training in how to use reference materials or special library facilities. I also give library tours to new patrons. I use computers and a variety of reference books to carry out my job.

After the job data are collected, the analyst will then write separate task statements that represent important job activities. For the reference librarian one task statement might be “Listens to patrons and answers their questions related to locating library materials.” Typically the job analyst will write five to ten im­portant task statements for each job under study. The final product will be writ­ten task statements that are clear, complete, and easily understood by those unfamiliar with the job. The critical incident method is an important job analysis method since it teaches the analyst to focus on employee behaviors critical to job success.

 

Job Descriptions

A job description is a written description of a job and the types of duties it includes. Since there is no standard format for job descriptions, they tend to vary in appearance and content from one organization to another. However, most job descriptions will contain at least three parts: the job title, a job identification section and a job duties section.
If the job specifications are not prepared as a separate document, they are usually stated in the concluding section of the job description. A job description for an HR employment assistant is shown below. This sample job description includes both job du­ties and job specifications and should satisfy most of the job information needs of managers who must recruit, interview, and orient a new employee.

 

JOB DESCRIPTION FOR AN EMPLOYMENT ASSISTANT
			JOB TITLE: Employment Assistant
			Division: Department: Job Analyst: Date Analyzed: Wage Category: Report to: Job code: Date Verified:		Southern Area Human Resources Management Virginia Sasaki 12/3/94 Exempt HR Manager 11-17 12/17/94
			JOB  STATEMENT
			Performs professional human resources work in the areas of employee recruitment and selection, testing, orientation, transfers, and maintenance of employee human resources files. May handle special assignments and projects in EEO/Affirmative Action, employee grievances, training, or classification and compensation. Works under general supervision. Incumbent exercises initiative and independent judgment in the performance of assigned tasks.
			ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS
			1. 2. 3. 4. 5.   6.   7. 8.	Prepares recruitment literature and job advertisements for applicant placement. Schedules and conducts personal interviews to determine applicant suitability for employment. Includes reviewing mailed applications and resumes for qualified personnel. Supervises administration of testing program. Responsible for developing or improving testing instruments and procedures. Presents orientation program to all new employees. Reviews and develops all materials and procedures for orientation program. Coordinates division job posting and transfer program. Establishes job posting procedures. Responsible for reviewing transfer applications, arranging transfer interviews, and determining effective transfer dates. Maintains a daily working relationship with division managers on human resource matters, including recruitment concerns, retention or release of probationary employees, and discipline or discharge of permanent employees. Distributes new or revised human resources policies and procedures to all employees and managers through bulletins, meetings, memorandums, and/or personal contact. Performs related duties as assigned by the human resource manager.
			JOB SPECIFICATION
			1.   2. 3. 4. 5.	Four-year college or university degree with major course work in human resources management, business administration, or industrial psychology; OR a combination of experience, education, and training equivalent to a four-year college degree in human resources management. Considerable knowledge of principles of employee selection and assignment of personnel Ability to express ideas clearly in both written and oral communications. Ability to independently plan and organize one’s own activities. Knowledge of human resource computer applications desirable.

Job Title

Selection of a job title is important for several reasons. First, the job title is of psychological importance, providing status to the employee. For instance, “sani­tation engineer” is a more appealing title than “garbage collector.” Second, if possible, the title should provide some indication of what the duties of the job entail. Titles like “meat inspector,” “electronics assembler,” “salesperson,” and “engineer” obviously hint at the nature of the duties of these jobs.
The job title also should indicate the relative level occupied by its holder in the organiza­tional hierarchy. For example, the title “junior engineer” implies that this job occupies a lower level than that of “senior engineer.” Other titles that indicate the relative level in the organizational hierarchy are “welder’s helper” and “labo­ratory assistant.”
Certain kinds of job titles should be avoided altogether. For example, a series of identical titles with qualifiers, such as “inventory clerk I” and “inventory clerk II,” makes it difficult to distinguish one job from another. Job titles quali­fied by the terms “man” or “woman” are also being discarded to avoid the impli­cation that the jobs can be performed only by members of one gender. Thus, a repairman is now a “repairer”; and a steward or stewardess, a “flight attendant.”

Job Identification Section

The job identification section of a job description usually follows the job title. It includes such items as the departmental location of the job, the person to whom the jobholder reports, and the date the job description was last revised. Some­times it also contains a payroll or code number, the number of employees per­forming the job, the number of employees in the department where the job is located, and the DOT code number.
“Statement of the Job” usually appears at the bottom of this section and serves to distinguish the job from other jobs--something the job title may fail to do.

Essential Functions Section

Statements covering job duties are typically arranged in order of importance. These statements should indicate the weight, or value, of each duty. Usually, but not always, the weight of a duty can be gauged by the percentage of time devoted to it. The statements should stress the responsibilities all the duties entail and the results they are to accomplish. It is also general practice to indicate the tools and equipment used by the employee in performing the job.

Job Specifications Section

As stated earlier, the personal qualifications an individual must possess in order to perform the duties and responsibilities contained in a job description are com­piled in the job specification. Typically the job specification covers two areas: (1) the skill required to perform the job and (2) the physical demands the job places upon the employee performing it.
Skills relevant to a job include education or experience, specialized train­ing, personal traits or abilities, and manual dexterities. The physical demands of a job refer to how much walking, standing, reaching, lifting, or talking must be done on the job. The condition of the physical work
environment and the hazards employees may encounter are also among the physical demands of a job.

Problems with Job Descriptions

Managers consider job descriptions a valuable tool for performing HRM func­tions. Nevertheless, several problems are frequently associated with these docu­ments, including the following:

• If they are poorly written, using vague rather than specific terms, they provide little guidance to the jobholder.
• They are sometimes not updated as job duties or specifications change.
• They may violate the law by containing specifications not related to job success.
• They can limit the scope of activities of the jobholder.
•  

Writing Clear and Specific Job Descriptions

 

When writing a job description, it is essential to use statements that are terse, direct, and simply worded. Unnecessary words or phrases should be eliminated. Typically, the sentences that describe job duties begin with a present-tense verb, with the implied subject of the sentence being the employee performing the job. The term “occasionally” is used to describe those duties that are performed once in a while. The term “may” is used in connection with those duties performed only by some workers on the job.
Even when set forth in writing, job descriptions and specifications can still be vague. To the consternation of many employers, however, today’s legal envi­ronment has created what might be called an “age of specifics.” Federal guidelines and court decisions now require that the specific performance requirements of a job be based on valid job-related criteria.
Personnel decisions that involve either job applicants or employees and are based on criteria that are vague or not job-related are increasingly successfully challenged. Managers of small busi­nesses, where employees may perform many different job tasks, must be particu­larly concerned about writing specific job descriptions.
When preparing job descriptions, managers also must adhere to the legal mandates of the Americans with Disabilities Act. The act re­quires that job duties and responsibilities be essential functions for job success. The purpose of essential functions is to help match and accommodate human capabil­ities to job requirements.
For example, if the job requires the jobholder to read extremely fine print, to climb ladders, or to memorize stock codes, these physical and mental requirements should be stated within the job description. The law gives three guidelines for rendering a job function essen­tial. These include (1) the reason the position exists is to perform the function, (2) a limited number of employees are available among whom the performance of the function may be distributed, and (3) the function may be highly specialized, requiring needed expertise or abilities to complete the job. Managers who write job descriptions in terms of essential functions reduce the risk of discriminating on the basis of a disability.

 

The Value of Written Job Requirements

Spelling out job requirements in job descriptions and job specifications is essen­tial in order for members of the HR staff to perform their duties. Job descriptions, in particular, are of value to both the employees and the employer. From the em­ployees’ standpoint, job descriptions can be used to help them learn their job duties and to remind them of the results they are expected to achieve.
From the employer’s standpoint, written job descriptions can serve as a basis for minimiz­ing the misunderstandings that occur between managers and their subordinates concerning job requirements. They also establish management’s right to take corrective action when the duties covered by the job description are not per­formed as required.

 

JOB DESIGN

An outgrowth of job analysis, job design is concerned with structuring jobs in order to improve organization efficiency and employee job satisfaction. The design of a job should reflect both technological and human considerations. It should facilitate the achievement of organizational objectives and the per­formance of the work the job was established to accomplish. At the same time, the design should recognize the capacities and needs of those who are to perform it.

Job design

Outgrowth of job analysis that improves jobs

through technological and human considerations
in order to enhance organization efficiency
and employee job satisfaction

As illustrated below, job design is a combination of four basic con­siderations: (1) the organizational objectives the job was created to fulfill; (2) industrial engineering considerations, including ways to make the job technologically efficient; (3) human engineering concerns, including workers’ physical and mental capabilities; and (4) quality-of-work-life changes.
Quality-of-work-life considerations in job design or redesign are reflected in contempo­rary programs. Three of the more popular programs are job enrichment, job enlargement, and employee teams.

 

BASIS FOR JOB DESIGN

Industrial Engineering Considerations

The study of work is an important contribution of the scientific management movement. Industrial engineering, which evolved with this movement, is con­cerned with analyzing work methods and establishing time standards. Specifi­cally, it involves both analyzing the elements of the work cycle that compose a particular job activity and determining the time required to complete each ele­ment.

Industrial engineering

A field of study concerned with analyzing

work methods and establishing
time standards

Development of Time Standards

 

Identifying and timing the elements in a work cycle or process flow are generally the responsi­bilities of the industrial engineering staff. They study the work cycle to deter­mine which, if any, of its elements can be modified, combined, rearranged, or eliminated to reduce the time needed to complete the cycle.
To establish time standards, the industrial engineering staff measures and records the time required to complete each element in the work cycle, using a stopwatch or work-sampling techniques. By combining the times for each ele­ment, they determine the total time required. This time is subsequently adjusted to allow for the skill and effort demonstrated by the observed worker and for in­terruptions that may occur in performing the work.
The adjusted time becomes the time standard for that particular work cycle. This standard then provides an objective basis for evaluating and improving employee performance and for de­termining incentive pay.

Benefits and Limitations of Industrial Engineering

 

Since jobs are created primarily to enable an organization to achieve its objec­tives, the efficiency goals of industrial engineering cannot be ignored. Industrial engineering does constitute a disciplined and objective approach to job design. Unfortunately, the concern of industrial engineering for improving efficiency and simplifying work methods may cause the human considerations in job design to be neglected.
What may be improvements in job design and efficiency from an engineering standpoint can sometimes prove to be psychologically unsound. For example, the assembly line with its simplified and repetitive tasks embodies sound principles of industrial engineering, but these tasks are often not psychologically rewarding for those who must perform them. Thus, to be effective, job design must also provide for the satisfaction of human needs.

 

Human Engineering Considerations

Human engineering attempts to accommodate the human capabilities and defi­ciencies of those who are to perform a job. It is concerned with adapting the en­tire job system--the work, the work environment, the machines, the equipment, and the processes--to match human characteristics. In short, it seeks to fit the machine to the person rather than the person to the machine.

Human engineering
An interdisciplinary approach to designing
machines and systems that can be easily
and efficiently used by human beings

Also referred to as hu­man factors engineering, ergonomics, and engineering psychology, human engineering attempts to minimize the harmful effects of carelessness, negligence, and other human fallibilities that otherwise may cause product defects, damage to equip­ment, or even the injury or death of employees.
Machine design must take into consideration the physical ability of opera­tors to use the machines and to react through vision, hearing, and touch to the information that the machines convey.

Job Design and the Problem of Overspecialization

Organizations typically combine similar duties and tasks into one job in order to facilitate the selection, training, and supervision of personnel who are to perform it. In doing so, organizations may unintentionally create jobs that are monoto­nous to perform. The employees performing such jobs face a problem referred to as "overspecialization."
Recognizing the problems created by overspecialization, some employers have initiated programs to consolidate the duties of several jobs under a single title. For example, the jobs of typist, receptionist, and file clerk might be consoli­dated under the single title of "administrative assistant." This process is essen­tially one of enlarging the job duties of employees to relieve the boredom and feeling of low achievement that overspecialization creates.

 

Behavioral Considerations

Management thought pertaining to job design has evolved from preoccupation with work simplification, standardization, and division of labor to concerns with human needs in job performance. This change has been caused in part by the limitations of overspecialization and industrial engineering.
An­other major challenge confronting employers today is that of improving the quality of work life (QWL). In large and small organizations, efforts are under way to use job design to improve the well-being of employees while also improv­ing organizational productivity. These efforts consist of making work more satis­fying and reducing anxieties and stresses of the work environment. They include job enrichment programs, changes in job characteristics, creation of employee participation teams, and adjustments in traditional work schedules.

Job Enlargement

Job enlargement, sometimes referred to as the horizontal loading of jobs, consists of increasing the number and variety of tasks a job includes. The tasks that are added are similar to current job duties; however, the new duties relieve boredom by offering additional variety to the jobholder. For example, a salesclerk’s job may be enlarged by having that individual perform inventory control, merchandise returns, or shipping and receiving duties.

Job enlargement
An increase in the number and variety
of tasks in a job in order to offer
additional variety to the jobholder

Job Rotation

Employees participate in job rotation when they do entirely different jobs on a rotating schedule. For example, employees working for an airline could be trained in reservations-sales, in-flight services (flight attendant), and ramp ser­vice work. Organizations may allow employees to rotate between jobs on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis, depending on organizational needs or the seniority of the employee.

Job Enrichment

Any effort that makes work more rewarding or satisfying by adding more mean­ingful tasks to an employee's job is called job enrichment. Originally popularized by Frederick Herzberg, job enrichment is touted as fulfilling the high motiva­tional needs of employees, such as self-fulfillment and self-esteem, while achiev­ing long-term job satisfaction and performance goals. Job enrichment, or the vertical expansion of jobs, may be accomplished by increasing the autonomy and responsibility of employees.

Job enrichment
Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful
tasks and duties to make the work
more rewarding or satisfying

        Herzberg discusses five factors for enriching jobs and thereby motivating employees: achievement, recognition, growth, responsi­bility, and performance of the whole job versus only parts of the job. For ex­ample, managers can use these five factors to enrich the jobs of employees by

·      Increasing the level of difficulty and responsibility of the job
·      Allowing employees to retain more authority and control over work outcomes
·      Providing unit or individual job performance reports directly to employees
·      Adding new tasks to the job that require training and growth
·      Assigning individuals specific tasks, thus enabling them to become experts

These factors allow employees to assume a greater role in the decision-making process and become more involved in planning, organizing, directing, and controlling their own work. Vertical job enrichment can also be accomplished by organizing workers into teams and giving these teams greater authority for self-management.
In spite of the benefits to be achieved through job enrichment, it must not be considered a panacea for overcoming production problems and employee dis­content. Job enrichment programs are more likely to succeed in some jobs and work situations than in others. They are nor the solution to such problems as dis­satisfaction with pay, with employee benefits, or with employment insecurity.
Moreover, not all employees object to the mechanical pacing of an assembly line, nor do all employees seek additional responsibility or challenge. Some prefer rou­tine jobs because they can let their minds wander while performing their work.
Furthermore, managerial attitudes can be a factor that limits the success of a job enrichment program.  Granting employees more job responsibility and al­lowing them to make job decisions once made by supervisors can be demotivating and unsettling to managers. First-level managers who feel threatened with the possible loss of their jobs can be formidable sources of resistance to change. The manager’s attitude toward enrichment may be: "Now that you've enriched the jobs of my employees, what's left for me to do?" Moreover, where managers hold low beliefs about participative decision making, this may discourage em­ployees from participating in the redesign of work.

Employee Teams

A logical outgrowth of job enrichment and the job characteristics model has been the growth of employee teams. Teams are groups of employees who assume a greater role in the production or service process. Teams provide a forum through which employees can express their beliefs about daily operations or identify and solve organizational problems.

Employee teams
Teams of employees offering production
or service suggestions to improve
organizational performance

        Involvement can include joint deci­sion making in which employees are encouraged to share their knowledge to re­solve operations concerns. Inherent in the concept of employee involvement is that employees, not managers, are in the best position to contribute to work­place improvements.
Team members often acquire multiple skills, enabling them to perform a va­riety of job tasks. The multiple skills of team members often enhance employee performance and interpersonal relationships.
Employee teams incorporate the motivational factors of job enrichment and the core job dimensions from the job characteristics model to produce a work en­vironment that is intrinsically fulfilling to employees. One key ingredient of teams is their ability to foster among all team members a sense of ownership, in­volvement, and responsibility for completing the assigned tasks. Additionally, teams can foster feelings of employee empowerment, an important component of total-quality management.

 

Adjustments in Work Schedules

Another form of job design is to alter the normal workweek of five eight-hour days in which all employees begin and end their workday at the same preset time. Employers may depart from the traditional workday or workweek in their attempt to improve organizational productivity and morale by giving employees increased control over the hours they work. The more common alternative work schedules include the four-day workweek, flextime, and job sharing.

The Four-Day Workweek

Under the four-day workweek (or compressed workweek), the number of days in the workweek is shortened by lengthening the number of hours worked per day. This schedule is best illustrated by the four-day, forty-hour week, generally re­ferred to as 4/10 or 4/40. Employees working a four-day workweek might work ten hours a day, Monday through Thursday. Although the 4/10 schedule is probably the best known, other compressed arrangements include reducing weekly hours to thirty-eight or thirty-six hours or scheduling eighty hours over nine days (9/80), taking one day off every other week.
Organizations that operate batch-processing systems (e.g., oil companies like Exxon or Shell Oil) use shorter workweeks to coordinate work schedules with production schedules. Compressed workweeks may assist with scheduling arrangements by improving plant and equipment utilization. The keying of work schedules to processing time for a specific operation rather than to a stan­dard workweek reduces startup and closedown time and often results in higher weekly output.
Two of the strongest advantages for the compressed work schedule are that it accommodates the leisure-time activities of employees and facilitates the em­ployee's scheduling of medical, dental, and other types of personal appointments. Other advantages include the improvement of employee job satisfaction and morale, reduced absenteeism, and the facilitation of recruitment.
The major disadvantage of the compressed workweek involves laws regarding overtime. The Fair Labor Standards Act has stringent rules requiring the payment of overtime to nonsupervisory employees who work more than forty hours a week. Another disadvantage of the compressed workweek is that it increases the amount of stress on managers. There is no ap­parent problem of employee fatigue from working ten-hour days nor is there a loss of coordination of work activities between departments.

Flextime

Flextime, or flexible working hours, permits employees the option of choosing daily starting and quitting times, provided that they work a certain number of hours per day or week. With flextime, employees are given considerable latitude in scheduling their work. However, there is a "core period" during the morning and afternoon when all em­ployees are required to be on the job.

Flextime
Flexible working hours that permit employees
the option of choosing daily starting and quitting
times, provided that they work a set
number of hours per day or week

Some variations of flextime allow employees to work as many or as few hours per day as they desire, so long as the total hours worked per week meet the mini­mum specified by management, usually forty hours. Flexible working hours are most common in service-type organizations—financial institutions, govern­ment agencies, or other organizations with large clerical operations.
The regional office of Sentry Insurance Company in Scottsdale, Arizona, has found that flextime provides many advantages for employees working in claims, underwriting, and HR areas. One flextime schedule used by Sentry Insurance is illustrated below.

SENTRY INSURANCE COMPANY’S FLEXTIME SCHEDULE

Flextime (arrival)

Core Time (everyone present)

Lunch

Core Time (everyone present)

Flextime (departure)

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

12:30

1:30

2:30

3:30

4:30

5:30

HOURS

Employees arriving at 6:00 a.m. would leave at 2:30 p.m.

Employees arriving at 9:00 a.m. would leave at 5:30 p.m.

 

Flextime provides both employees and employers with several advantages. By allowing employees greater flexibility in work scheduling, employers can re­duce some of the traditional causes of tardiness and absenteeism. Employees can adjust their work to accommodate their particular lifestyles and, in doing so, gain greater job satisfaction. Employees can also schedule their working hours for the time of day when they are most productive.
In addition, variations in ar­rival and departure times can help reduce traffic congestion at the peak commuting hours. In some cases, employees require less time to commute, and the pressures of meeting a rigid schedule are reduced.
From the employer's standpoint, flextime can be most helpful in recruiting and retaining personnel. It has proved invaluable to organizations wishing to im­prove service to customers or clients by extending operating hours. US West, a telecommunications company, uses flextime to keep its business offices open for customers who cannot get there during the day. Research demonstrates that flextime can have a positive impact on the performance measures of reliability, quality, and quantity of employee work.
There are, of course, several disadvantages to flextime. First, it is not suited to some jobs. It is not feasible, for example, where specific workstations must be staffed at all times. Second, it can create problems for managers in communicat­ing with and instructing employees. Flextime schedules may also force these managers to extend their workweek if they are to exercise control over their sub­ordinates. Finally, keeping premises open for a longer period will increase energy consumption, resulting in higher costs for the employer.

Job Sharing

The arrangement whereby two part-time employees perform a job that otherwise would be held by one full-time employee is called "job sharing." Job sharers usu­ally work three days a week, "creating an overlap day for extended face-to-face conferencing." Their pay is three-fifths of a regular salary; however, job sharers usually take on additional responsibilities beyond what the original job would require. Companies that use job sharing are primarily in the legal, advertising, and financial-services businesses.
Job sharing is suited to the needs of families where one or both spouses desire to work only part-time. It is suited also to the needs of older workers who want to phase into retirement by shortening their workweek. For the employer, the work of part-time employees can be scheduled to conform to peaks in the daily workload.
Job sharing can also limit layoffs in hard economic times. A final benefit is that employees engaged in job sharing have time off during the week to accommodate personal needs, so they are less likely to be absent.
Job sharing does have several problems, however. Employers may not want to employ two people to do the work of one because the time required to orient and train a second employee constitutes an added burden. They may also want to avoid prorating the employee benefits between two part-time employees. This problem may be reduced, however, by permitting the employees to contribute the difference between the health insurance (or life insurance) premiums for a full-time employee and the pro rata amount the employer would otherwise contribute for a part-time employee.
The key to making job sharing work is good communi­cations between partners who use a number of ways to stay in contact-phone calls, written updates, electronic mail, and voice mail.
A variation of job sharing is work sharing. A work-sharing program permits all employees in the organization to shorten their workweeks (usually to under thirty-two hours) while continuing to receive normal employee benefits. Work sharing is used almost exclusively to reduce the harmful effects of extensive lay­offs due to poor economic conditions.

Shift Work

In order to meet various service requirements, some industries, such as transpor­tation, communications, and health care, must provide continuous operations. For economic reasons, some businesses--for example, refinery operations--must maintain twenty-four-hour production schedules. Employees working in these organizations are subject to round-the-clock work schedules, or shift work.
The most common shift schedules are days (7 a.m. to 3 p.m.), evenings (3 p.m. to 11 p.m.), and nights (11 p.m. to 7 a.m.). Employees doing shift work may have their shifts rotated on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis. Rotating employees through the different shifts permits everyone to share in the favored daytime hours. Employees can be assigned to shifts by management; in unionized organi­zations, the seniority rights of employees will dictate their ability to choose their work hours.

SUMMARY

• Job requirements reflect the different duties, tasks, and responsibilities contained in jobs. Job requirements, in turn, influence the HR function performed by managers, including recruitment, selection, training and development, performance appraisal, compensation, and various labor relations activities.
• Job analysis data may be gathered using one of several collection methods—interviews, questionnaires, observations, or diaries. Other more quantitative approaches include use of the functional job analysis, the position analysis questionnaire system, and the critical incident method. It is the prevailing opinion of the courts that HRM decisions on employment, performance appraisal, and promotions must be based on specific criteria that are job-related. These criteria can be determined objectively only by analyzing the requirements of each job.
• The format of job descriptions varies widely, often reflecting the needs of the organization and the expertise of the writer. As a minimum, job descriptions should contain a job title, a job identification section, and an essential functions section. A job specification section also may be included. Job descriptions should be written in clear and specific terms with consideration given to their legal implications.
• Job design is a combination of four basic considerations: industrial engineering concerns of analyzing work methods and establishing time standards; human engineering considerations, which accommodate human capabilities and limitations to job tasks; behavioral considerations, which make jobs more psychologically rewarding; and quality-of-life concerns, which foster a favorable work environment through physical, psychological, and social job improvement.
• To improve the internal environment of organizations and thereby increase American productivity, greater efforts are being made by many organizations to enhance the quality of work life. These efforts include the establishment of job enrichment programs offering opportunities for employees to experience achievement, responsibility, growth, and recognition in performing their jobs, thus giving them greater job satisfaction. Job enlargement programs reduce boredom by introducing variety into the job. This is accomplished by giving the jobholder additional and different tasks to perform. Job rotation programs allow employees to perform entirely different jobs on a selected schedule. Employee involvement teams allow employees to make suggestions to improve operations and services, thereby giving them a greater commitment to the organization.
• In the job characteristics model, five job factors contribute to increased job performance and satisfaction—skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. All factors should be built into jobs since each factor influences different employee psychological states. When jobs are enriched through the job characteristics model, then employees experience more meaningfulness in their jobs, acquire more job responsibility, and they receive direct feedback from the tasks they perform.
• Changes in work schedules—which include the four-day workweek, flextime, and job-sharing—permit employees to adjust their work periods to accommodate their particular lifestyles. Employees can select from among these HR techniques to accommodate diverse employee needs while fostering organizational effectiveness.

 

KEY TERMS
Critical incident method Employee teams Flextime Functional job analysis (FJA) Human engineering Industrial engineering Job Job analysis Job characteristics model	Job description Job design Job enlargement Job enrichment Job requirements Job specification Position Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ)