Nationalism and Imperialism in the Late Nineteenth Century
Nationalism, simply defined, is dedication to and identification with the interests, purposes, and well-being of one’s nation-state, a political entity consisting ideally of individuals with a common language, history, and values. As such, nationalism takes precedence over competing loyalties to religion, locality, and even family. No other political force in modern history has matched its ability to inspire heroism and self-sacrifice, both for good and ill.
Nationalism emerged during the French Revolution when the French people transformed themselves from “subjects” to “citizens” by abolishing class privilege and establishing a regime based on equality and popular sovereignty. When war broke out in 1792 between republican France and antirevolutionary Austria and Prussia, previously apathetic Frenchmen eagerly volunteered to fight, and defense of the Revolution became a national crusade. In 1792 and 1793 their patriotism saved the revolution, and in the early 1800s it contributed to the stunning victories of Napoleon that gave France control of most of Europe by 1810. French conquests in turn aroused nationalism among Germans, Italians, Poles, and Russians, who fought to throw off French rule and establish self-government.
Although successful in defeating France on the battlefield, nationalists had their hopes dashed in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. Diplomats gave Norway and Sweden, Belgium to the Netherlands, and much of Italy to Austria; divided Poland among Russia, Prussia, and Austria; and kept Germany fragmented. But nationalism could not be snuffed out by redrawing maps and making diplomatic compromises. Strengthened by romanticism, Darwinist notions of competition and struggle, economic rivalries, and popular journalism, nationalism intensified in the nineteenth century, not only in areas of foreign rule and political fragmentation, but also in long-established states such as Great Britain and France. It contributed to some of the nineteenth century’s most important political developments: the revolutions of 1830 and 1848, the unification of Italy in 1870 and of Germany in 1871, runaway militarism among the Great Powers, the emergence of new states in the Balkans, and late-nineteenth-century imperialism.
Unlike nationalism, a new historical phenomenon, European imperialism has a history that goes back to the medieval crusades and the sixteenth-century conquests of the Americas. Europe’s overseas expansion continued in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries despite the loss of American colonies by France, Great Britain, Portugal and Spain. The British extended their authority in powers led by England forced China to open its ports to foreign trade after the Opium War (1839-1842). Then in the closing decades of 1800s – the Era of Imperialism – the long history of Western expansion culminated in an unprecedented and astounding land grab. Between 1870 and 1914 Great Britain added 4.25 million square miles of territory and 66 million people to its empire; France, 3.25 million square miles of territory and 26 million people; Germany, 1 million square miles and 13 million people; and Belgium, 900,000 square miles and 13 million people. Italy, the United States, and the Netherlands also added colonial territories and subjects.
These acquisitions were made possible by a number of key technological developments. The replacement of sailing vessels by metal-hulled steamships reduced two-month ocean voyages to two weeks; undersea telegraph lines enabled governments and businessmen to communicate in seconds, not weeks or months; medical advances and new drugs protected Europeans from diseases that flourished in warm, humid climates; rapid-fire rifles and machine guns gave Western troops an insurmountable advantage over nay Africans or Asians who resisted the invaders of their lands.
Technological capability alone, however, cannot explain the expansionist fever that swept through the West in the late 1800s. Anticipated economic gains, missionary fervor, racism, and the faith in the West’s civilizing mission all contributed. But the most important cause was nationalism. Politicians, journalists, and millions of people from every walk of life were convinced that foreign conquests brought respect, prestige, and a sense of national accomplishment. To have colonies was a sure sign of Great Power status.
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