TRAINING

Human resources training has become increasingly vital to the success of modern organizations. Rapidly changing technology requires that employees possess the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) needed to cope with new processes and production techniques. The growth of organizations into large, complex operations whose structures are continually changing makes it necessary for managers, as well as employees, to develop the KSAs that will enable them to handle new and more demanding assignments.
There are many forces that determine the types of training required in an organization. Automation and computerization will continue to have a major impact. Economic, social, and political forces likewise have implications for training programs.
There has been a definite trend for organizations to create career development programs. We will give special attention to these programs in the next chapter. In this chap­ter the emphasis will be on the orientation of employees, the scope of training programs, a systems approach to training, training methods, new programs, and the application of learning theory.

Orientation

The first step in the training process is to get new employees off to a good start. This is generally accomplished through a formal orientation program. Orienta­tion is the formal process of familiarizing new employees with the organization, their job, and their work unit. Its purpose is to enable new employees to get “in sync” so that they quickly become productive members of the organization.

Orientation
Formal process of familiarizing new
employees with the organization,
their job, and their work unit

Benefits of Orientation

In some organizations a formal new-hire orientation program is almost nonexis­tent or, when it does exist, it is performed in a casual manner. This is unfortu­nate, since there are a number of very practical and cost-effective benefits from conducting a well-run program. Some of the benefits frequently reported by em­ployers include the following:

1.  Lower turnover
2.  Increased productivity
3.  Improved employee morale
4.  Lower recruiting and training costs
5.  Facilitation of learning
6.  Reduction of new employee’s anxiety

The more time and effort spent in helping new employees feel welcome, the more likely they are to identify with the organization and become valuable members of it. Unlike training, which emphasizes the what and how, orientation stresses the why. It is designed to develop in employees a particular attitude about the work they will be doing and their role in the organization. It defines the philosophy behind the organization’s rules and provides a framework for job-related tasks.

                                           
A Continuous Process

Since an organization is faced with ever-changing conditions, its plans, policies, and procedures must change with these conditions. Unless current employees are kept up to date with these changes, they may find themselves embarrassingly un­aware of activities with which new employees are being oriented. While the dis­cussion that follows focuses primarily on the needs of new employees, it is important that all employees be continually reoriented to changing conditions.

 

A Cooperative Endeavor

For a well-integrated orientation program, cooperation between line and staff is essential. The HR department ordinarily is responsible for coordinating ori­entation activities and for providing new employees with information about conditions of employment, pay, benefits, and other areas not directly under a su­pervisor’s direction. However, the supervisor has the most important role in the orientation program. New employees are interested primarily in what the super­visor says and does and what their new co-workers are like.
Before the arrival of a new employee, the supervisor should inform the work group that a new worker is joining the unit. It is also common practice for supervisors or other managerial personnel to recruit co-workers to serve as volunteer “sponsors” for incoming em­ployees. In addition to providing practical help to newcomers, this approach con­veys an emphasis on teamwork.

 

Careful Planning

An orientation program can make an immediate and lasting impression on an employee that can mean the difference between the employee’s success and fail­ure on the job. Thus careful planning-with emphasis on program goals, topics to be covered, and methods of organizing and presenting them-is essential. Successful programs emphasize the individual’s needs for information, under­standing, and a feeling of belonging.
To avoid overlooking items that are important to employees, many organiza­tions devise checklists for use by those responsible for conducting the orienta­tion. The list below suggests items to include in a supervisor’s orientation checklist. Orientation should focus on matters of immediate concern such as important aspects of the job and organizational behavior rules—for example, attendance and safety.

A Manager’s Orientation Checklist

A formal greeting, including introduction to fellow employees Explanation of job procedures, duties, and responsibilities Training to be received Manager and organization expectations regarding attendance, personal conduct, and appearance Job standards and production/service levels Performance appraisal criteria Conditions of employment, including hours of work, pay periods, and overtime requirements Organization and work unit rules, regulations, and policies Safety regulations Those to notify or turn to if problems or questions arise Chain of command for reporting purposes An overall explanation of the organization’s operation and purpose Offers of help and encouragement

 

In orientation sessions new employees are often given a packet of materials to read at their leisure. Some of the materials such a packet might include are listed below. Because statements regarding such matters as tenure, basis for dismissal, and benefits may be viewed by employees and the courts as legally binding on the employer, it is advisable to have the legal depart­ment review the packet and write disclaimers to the effect that the materials do not constitute an employment contract.

ITEMS FOR AN ORIENTATION PACKET

Copy of specific job goals and descriptions Copies of performance appraisal forms, dates of appraisals, and appraisal procedures List of on-the-job training opportunities Detailed outline of emergency and accident-prevention procedures Copy of policy handbook Telephone numbers and locations of key personnel and operations Current organization chart Map of the facility List of key terms unique to the industry, company, and/or job Copy of union contract List of holidays List of employee benefits Copies of other required forms (e.g., supply requisition and expense reimbursement) Sources of information Copy of each important organization publication Copies of insurance plans

 

Those planning an orientation program should take into account the anxi­ety employees feel during their first few days on the job. It is natural to experi­ence some anxiety, but if employees are too anxious, training costs, turnover, absenteeism, and even production costs may increase. Early in the orientation program steps should be taken to reduce the anxiety level of new employees.
Some employers think it does no harm to allow new employees to be ori­ented by their peers. One danger of failing to ensure that new workers are ori­ented by their supervisors and not their peers is that unsafe work practices and unacceptable behaviors that conflict with the organization’s policies can be per­petuated. The behaviors these employees develop can undermine the organiza­tion’s policies and procedures.

 

Follow-up and Evaluation

Supervisors should always consult with their new employees after the first day and frequently throughout the first week on the job. When all of the items on the orientation checklist for the employee have been addressed, both the super­visor and the employee should sign it, and the record should then be placed in the employee’s personnel file to document what has been covered. After the em­ployee has been on the job for a month, and again after a year, management should follow up to determine how effective the orientation has been. Evaluations can then be conducted through in-depth interviews, questionnaires and surveys, and discussion groups.

The Scope of Training

Many new employees come equipped with most of the KSAs needed to start work. Others may require extensive training before they are ready to make much of a contribution to the organization. A majority, however, will require some type of training at one time or another to maintain an effective level of job performance.
Training can be defined as any procedure initiated by an organization to fos­ter learning among its members. The primary purpose of a training program is to help the organization achieve its overall objectives. At the same time, an effec­tive training program should help trainees to satisfy their own personal goals.
The primary reason that organizations train new employees is to bring their KSAs up to the level required for satisfactory performance. As they continue on the job, additional training provides opportunities for them to acquire new knowledge and skills. As a result of the training, employees may be even more effective on the job and may qualify for jobs at a higher level.
A survey of a large number of organizations reveals that the content of training programs varies widely. The table below illustrates the diversity of subjects covered, the percentage of organizations providing different types of training, and the place where that training occurs.

GENERAL TYPES OF TRAINING
TYPES OF TRAINING	% PROVIDING	IN-HOUSE ONLY (%)	OUTSIDE ONLY (%)	BOTH (%)
Management skills/development	91	12	18	61
Basic computer skills	90	21	14	55
Communication skills	87	21	12	53
Supervisory skills	86	18	12	56
Technical skills/knowledge	82	22	6	54
New methods/procedures	80	38	5	37
Executive development	77	8	26	44
Customer relations/services	76	25	9	41
Personal growth	73	14	15	45
Clerical/secretarial skills	73	23	18	32
Employee/labor relations	67	23	12	31
Customer education	65	28	5	31
Wellness	63	21	15	28
Sales skills	56	15	11	30
Remedial/basic education	48	11	21	15

As noted earlier, there are many forces that determine the types of training required in an organization. A Work in America Institute study identifies these forces as follows:

1.  Increased global and domestic competition is leading to a greater need for competitive strategies, which often include training as an essential element.
2.  Rapid advances in technology have created an acute need for people with specialized technical skills.
3.  Widespread mergers, acquisitions, and divestitures, which realign corporate structures but do not necessarily give people the ability to carry out their new responsibilities, require long-term training plans.
4.  A better-educated workforce, which values self-development and personal growth, has brought an enormous desire for learning plus a growing need for new forms of participation at work.
5.  The obsolescence of some occupations and the emergence of new occupations resulting from the changing nature of the economy; the shift from manufacturing to service industries; and the impact of research, development, and technology require flexible training policies to prevent increased turnover and lower productivity.

In order to have personnel who have the KSAs required for effective organi­zational performance, training programs are typically organized for two major groups: nonmanagerial personnel and managerial and supervisory personnel. Training for these two major groups and special types of training programs will be discussed after we study the systems approach to training.

A System Approach to Training

Since the primary goal of training is to contribute to the organization’s overall goals, training programs should be developed with an eye to organizational strat­egy. Part of the organization’s strategy must include recognition of the growing pressure from government and society to attend to the needs of workers who have been displaced by structural shifts in the economy, geographical relocation of jobs, international competition, technological changes, and industry deregula­tion. Ford Motor Company and General Motors even train their displaced work­ers who must seek jobs at other organizations.
The problem with some training programs is that one method or gimmick can sometimes become the main focus of the program. The objectives may be hazy, or evaluation may be inadequate. Too frequently the popularity of a pro­gram as indicated by the satisfaction of the participants has been used as the sole basis for judging the program’s value in meeting the organizational objectives. A recommended solution to these programs is the use of a systems approach to training that involves a four-step sequence:

• formulate instructional objec­tives
• develop learning experiences to achieve these objectives
• establish performance criteria
• gather information to use in evaluating training programs.

 

        A model that is useful to designers of training programs consists of four phases: needs assessment, train­ing and development, evaluation, and training goals.

 

Needs Assessment Phase

Managers and HR staffs should be alert to indications of what kind of training is needed and where it is needed. The failure of workers to meet production quotas, for example, might signal a need for training. Likewise, an excessive number of rejects or waste of material might suggest inadequate training. Managers should be careful to approach training needs systematically, however. Three different analyses are recommended for use in the needs assessment phase: organizational analysis, task analysis, and person analysis.
        Organizational analysis is an examination of the goals, resources, and environment of the organization to determine where training emphasis should be placed. The resources—technological, financial, and human—that are available to meet objectives also must be considered.

Organizational analysis
Examination of the goals, resources, and environment
of the organization to determine where training
emphasis should be placed

        HR policies and organizational climate have an impact on the goals of the training program. Similarly, external factors, such as public policy as reflected in laws, regulations, and court decisions, also influence where the training emphasis will be placed.
Organizations typically collect data to use in the analysis, such as information on direct and indirect labor costs, quality of goods or services, absenteeism, turnover, and number of accidents. The availability of potential replacements and the time required to train them are other important factors in organizational analysis.
Designing a specific training program requires an organization to review the job description that indicates the activities performed in a particular job and the conditions under which they are performed. This review is followed by a task analysis, which involves determining what the content of the training program should be, on the basis of a study of the tasks or duties involved in the job. Task analysis appears to be shifting from an emphasis on what is currently required to what will be required in the future for an employee to be effective in a particular job.

Task analysis
Process of determining what the content of a
training program should be on the basis of
a study of the tasks or duties involved in the job

        The first step in task analysis is to list all the tasks or duties included in the job. The second step is to list the steps performed by the employee to complete each task. Once the job is understood thoroughly, the type of performance required (e.g., speech, recall, discrimination, manipulation), along with the skills and knowledge necessary for job performance, can be defined. For example, in the task of taking a chest X-ray, a radiologist correctly positions the patient (manipulation), gives special instructions (speech), and checks the proper dis­tance of the X-ray tube from the patient (discrimination).
The types of performance skills and knowledge that trainees need can be determined by observing and questioning skilled jobholders and/or by reviewing job descriptions. This information helps trainers to select program content and choose the most effective training method.
Once the organizational and task analyses have been made, it is necessary to perform a person analysis. Person analysis involves determining whether task performance by individual employees is acceptable and studying the characteris­tics of individuals and groups who will be placed in the training environment. It is important to determine what prospective trainees can and cannot do so that the training program can be designed to emphasize the areas in which they are deficient.

Person analysis
Determination of the specific skills, knowledge,
and attitudes required of people on the job

After all the analyses have been made, a picture of the training needs emerges. The desired outcomes of training programs should then be stated for­mally in instructional objectives. Generally, instructional objectives involve the acquisition of skills or knowledge or the changing of attitudes.

Instructional objectives
Desired outcomes of a
training program

A clear statement of instructional objectives will provide a sound basis for choosing methods and materials and for selecting the means for assessing whether the in­struction will be successful. What are the intended results?
One type of instructional objective, the performance-centered objective, is widely used because it lends itself to an unbiased evaluation of results. For ex­ample, the stated objective for one training program might be that “Employees trained in team methods will be able to perform these different jobs within six months.” Performance-centered objectives typically include precise terms, such as “to calculate,” “to repair,” “to adjust,” “to construct,” “to assemble,” and “to classify.”

 

Training and Development Phase

Once the training needs have been determined and the instructional objectives specified, the next step is to develop the type of environment necessary to achieve these objectives. This includes formulating a specific training strategy and prepar­ing instructional plans. A major consideration in creating a training environ­ment is choosing a method that will enable the trainee to learn most effectively.

Evaluation Phase

Training, like any other HRM function, should be evaluated to determine its ef­fectiveness. Unfortunately, however, few organizations have adequate systems to evaluate the effectiveness of their training programs.
While evaluation methods are improving, too many conclusions about train­ing effectiveness are still based on the subjective reactions of trainers and trainees. It is easy to collect glowing comments from trainees, but this information, how­ever gratifying to management, may not be very useful to the organization. Train­ing is not provided for its entertainment value. The real issue is whether the training effort will translate to improved behavior and job performance.
Not only should trainees be tested before and after training, but the same evaluations should also be made of individuals in a control group. The control group contains employees who have not received the training but who match the trainees in such areas as experience, past training, and job level. Some of the cri­teria used in evaluating the effectiveness of training are increased productivity, fewer employee complaints, decreased costs and waste, and similar evidence of improved performance.
An evaluation should be undertaken to provide data for a specific decision, such as whether or not to adopt or continue a training course or how to improve the course. Planning the evaluation around specific ob­jectives increases the likelihood that findings will produce meaningful changes. Training directors often limit themselves by not being able to prove their effec­tiveness objectively in terms of the specific benefits of training to the organiza­tion and the costs of obtaining those benefits.
According to an American Society of Training and Development (ASTD) study, approximately two-thirds of training managers surveyed reported that they were coming under additional pressure to show that their programs produce “bottom-line” results.

 

Meeting Training Goals

To help determine the effectiveness of training, the evaluation phase must address the worth of the training program. A number of goals are possible. The choice of which goal to pursue depends on the information one seeks and the constraints under which one operates. The four choices are as follows:

• Training validity: whether the trainees learn during training
• Transfer validity: whether what has been learned in training translates to enhanced performance in the organization
• Intraorganizational validity: whether the performance of a new group of trainees in the organization that developed the training program is consistent with the performance of the original training group in the same organization
• Interorganizational validity: whether a training program found effective in one organization can be used successfully in another organization

 

 

Benchmarking

In recent years there has been an increased interest in benchmarking human re­sources developmental activities. Benchmarking is the continuous process of comparing one’s own services and practices against those recognized leaders in a particular area such as HR development. While there are shortcomings in the benchmarking process, experts in this area are attempting to work out ways of measuring what training departments do. Three broad areas that most HR training and developmental practitioners consider essential are:

• Measures of training activity (How much training is occurring?)
• Measures of training results (How well do training and development achieve their goals?)
• Measures of training efficiency (To what extent are resources utilized in the pursuit of this mission?)

 

Benchmarking
Process of measuring one’s own services and practices
against the recognized leaders in order to
identify areas for improvement

Several companies have come together under the auspices of the ASTD and its Institute for Workplace Learning. The project provides a way for the compa­nies to measure and benchmark against each other their practices in the area of training and development.

Training Nonmanagerial Employees

A wide variety of methods is available for training personnel at all levels. Some of the methods have a long history of usage. Newer methods have emerged over the years out of a greater understanding of human behavior, particularly in the areas of learning, motivation, and interpersonal relationships. More recently, technological advances, especially in electronics, have resulted in training devices that in many instances are more effective and economical than tradi­tional training methods.

 

On-the-Job Training

On-the-job training (OJT) is one of the most common methods of training non-managerial employees. OJT has the advantage of providing hands-on experience under normal working conditions and an opportunity for the trainer—a man­ager or senior employee—to build good relationships with new employees.

On-the-job training (OJT)
Method by which employees are given hands-on-experience
With instructions from their supervisor or other trainer

Although it is used by all types of organizations, OJT is often one of the most poorly implemented training methods. Three common drawbacks include (1) the lack of a well-structured training environment, (2) poor training skills of managers, and (3) the absence of well-defined job performance criteria. To over­come these problems, training experts suggest the following:

• Develop realistic goals and/or measures for each OJT area.
• Plan a specific training schedule for each trainee, including set periods for evaluation and feedback.
• Help managers to establish a nonthreatening atmosphere that is conducive to learning.
• Conduct periodic evaluations, after training is completed, to prevent regression.

 

Off-the-Job Training

In addition to on-the-job training, it is usually necessary to provide employees with training in settings away from their ordinary workplace. Some methods in­volve training employees away from their usual locations but still within the or­ganization’s facilities. Other methods involve training employees in locations outside the organization.

Conference or Discussion

A method of individualized instruction frequently used where the training in­volves primarily the communication of ideas, procedures, and standards is the conference or discussion method. This method allows for considerable flexibility in the amount of employee participation.

Classroom Training

Classroom training enables the maximum number of trainees to be handled by the minimum number of instructors. This method lends itself particularly to training in areas where information and instructions can be presented in lec­tures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes, and through computer instruction.
A special type of classroom facility is used in vestibule training. Trainees are given instruction in the operation of equipment like that found in operating departments. The emphasis is on instruction rather than production.

A PRACTICAL BLUEPRINT

Practical methods can guide you in instructing a new employee on a job, or a present employee on a new job or a new skill. The steps below can guide the instructor in the design of the training program. STEP I—PREPARATION (of the employee) Put the employee at ease. Find out what the employee already knows about the job. Get the employee interested and desirous of learning the job.   STEP II—PRESENTATION (of the operations and knowledge) Tell, show, illustrate, and question in order to put over the new knowledge and operations. Instruct slowly, clearly, completely and patiently, on point at a time. Check, question, and repeat. Make sure the employee really knows.   STEP III—PERFORMANCE TRY-OUT Test the employee by having him or her perform the job. Ask questions beginning with why, how, when, or where. Observe performance, correct errors, and repeat instructions if necessary. Continue until you know the employee knows.   STEP IV—FOLLOW-UP   Put the employee “on his or her own.” Check frequently to be sure the employee follows instructions. Taper off extra supervision and close follow-up until the employee is qualified to work with normal supervision.   REMEMBER-If the employee hasn’t learned, the manager hasn’t taught.

 

 

Programmed Instruction

One method of instruction uses a book, manual, or computer to present pro­grammed subject matter. Programmed instruction breaks down subject matter content into highly organized, logical sequences that demand continuous re­sponses on the part of the trainee. After being presented with a small segment of information, the trainee is required to answer a question, either by writing it in a response frame or by pushing a button. If the response is correct, the trainee is told so and is presented with the next step (frame) in the material. If the re­sponse is incorrect, further explanatory information is given and the trainee is told to try again.
A major advantage of programmed instruction is that it incorporates a number of established learning principles. With programmed instruction, training is individualized, trainees are ac­tively involved in the instructional process, and feedback and reinforcement are immediate.

 

Computer-based Training

As development of technology proceeds at a rapid pace and the cost of computers continues to decline, high-technology training methods are finding increasing use in industry, academia, and the military.
Computer-based training (CBT) encompasses two distinct techniques: computer-assisted instruction and computer-managed instruction. A computer-assisted instruction (CAI) system delivers training material directly through a computer terminal in an interactive format. Computers make it possible to provide drill and practice, problem solving, simulation, gaming forms of instruction, and certain very sophisticated forms of individualized tutorial instruction.

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
System that delivers instructional material directly
through a computer terminal in
an interactive format

A computer-managed instruction (CMI) system is normally used in conjunction with CAI, thereby providing an efficient means of managing the training function. CMI uses a computer to generate and score tests and to determine the level of trainee proficiency. CMI systems can also track the performance of trainees and direct them to appropriate study material to meet their specific needs. With CMI, the computer takes on some of the routine aspects of training, free­ing the instructor to spend time on course develop­ment or individualized instruction.

Computer-managed instruction (CMI)
System normally employed in conjunction with
CAI that uses a computer to generate and score
tests and to determine the level of training proficiency

CBT is being used more and more to train users of human resources information systems (HRIS). Trainees begin with relatively simple tasks, such as entering a new employee’s records in the personnel file, then proceed to more complex procedures as they master each task. The training data are often simulated, but the procedures are real. Some of the advantages of CBT are listed below.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING

Learning is self-paced. Training comes to the employee. All trainees get exactly the same training. New employees do not have to wait for a scheduled training session. Training can focus on specific needs as revealed by built-in tests. Trainees can be referred to on-line help or written material. It is easier to revise a computer program than to change classroom training materials. Record keeping is facilitated. The computer program can be linked to video presentations.

 

Simulation Method

Sometimes it is either impractical or unwise to train employees on the actual equipment that is used on the job. An obvious example is the training of personnel to operate aircraft, spacecraft, and other highly technical and expensive equipment. The simulation method emphasizes realism in equipment and its operation at minimum cost and maximum safety.
For example, airline pilots can receive rigorous training through the use of a aircraft simulator. Employing advanced computer technology, the simulator can realistically depict train-track dynamics, provide taped train sounds and visuals, and duplicate a variety of operations.

 

Use of Other Training Devices

To teach skills and procedures for many production jobs, certain training devices may be used. For example, devices that look like a portable TV use slides or videotape to illustrate the steps in the manufacture and assembly of electronic and other components. Closed-circuit television and video recording equipment (such as camcorders) are also standard training devices. Closed-circuit television allows an instructional program to be transmitted to many locations simulta­neously. The use of camcorders permits on-the-spot recording and immediate feedback to the trainees.
Two newer training techniques, the videodisc and training by telephone (or teletraining), incorporate positive learning principles while providing flexibility to organizational trainers. Interactive videodiscs, an extension of CBT, have an advantage over other programmed learning techniques in that they allow imme­diate access to any segment of the instructional program. This is especially use­ful for individualized instruction of employees with different levels of knowledge and ability.
Videodiscs are currently used to teach doctors to diagnose illness, to help dairy farmers to increase productivity, and to teach CPR trainees in fire-fighting and other emergency services jobs to revive victims of heart attacks. More-recent applications tackle the difficult managerial skills of leadership, su­pervision, and interpersonal relations.
Teletraining is used to provide orientation to new employees and presents monthly sales market training by telephone. What are the benefits of teletraining? They include scheduling flexibility, reduced time and expense of staff travel, increased access to experts, and the ability to reach dispersed groups of trainees in remote locations.

 

Apprenticeship Training

A system of training in which the employee entering industry As given thorough instruction and experience, both on and off the job, in the practical and theo­retical aspects of the work in a skilled trade is known as apprenticeship training. Apprenticeship programs are based on voluntary cooperation between manage­ment and labor, between industry and government, and between the organiza­tion and the school system.

Apprenticeship training
System of training in which a worker entering the
skill trades is given thorough instruction and experience, both
on and off the job, in the practical and
theoretical aspects of the work

Although apprenticeship wages are less than those of fully qualified workers, this method does provide training with pay for indi­viduals interested in qualifying for jobs such as machinist, laboratory technician, and electrician.

 

Cooperative Training, Internships,

and Governmental Training

Cooperative training programs combine practical on-the-job experience with formal classes. The term “cooperative training” is also used in connection with high school and college programs that incorporate part- or full-time experi­ences. In recent years there has been an increased effort to expand opportunities that combine on-the-job skill training with regular classroom training so that students can pursue either technical work or a college degree program.

Cooperative training
Training program that combines practical
on-the-job experience with
formal educational classes

Many or­ganizations have strong ties to high schools and colleges and invest millions of dollars in educational programs.
Internship programs, jointly sponsored by colleges, universities, and a vari­ety of organizations, offer students the chance to get real-world experience while finding out how they will perform in work organizations. Organizations benefit by getting student-employees with new ideas, energy, and eagerness to accom­plish their assignments. Many universities allow students to earn college credits on the basis of successful job performance and fulfillment of established program requirements.

Internship programs
Programs jointly sponsored by colleges, universities,
and other organizations that offer students the opportunity
to gain real-life experience while allowing them to
find out how they will perform in work organizations

Training Managers and Supervisors

Training and development of managers is a multibillion-dollar business. In a sur­vey of a representative sample of 611 companies, the percentage of companies that reported using this type of training was 93 percent for on-the-job training, 90 percent for external short courses, 80 percent for special projects or task forces, 57 percent for mentoring, 40 percent for job rotation, 31 percent for uni­versity residential programs, and 25 percent for executive MBA programs. Sig­nificant differences in training practices were found among various industries and between large and small companies. Some of the training methods used for nonmanagerial personnel may also be used to train managers and supervisors.

 

On-the-Job Experiences

Management skills and abilities cannot be acquired just by listening and observ­ing or by reading about them. They must be acquired through actual practice and experience in which there are opportunities to perform under pressure and to learn from mistakes. On-the-job experiences are used most commonly by orga­nizations to develop executives. Such experiences should be well planned and su­pervised and should be meaningful and challenging to the participant. Methods of providing on-the-job experiences include the following:

• Coaching involves a continuing flow of instructions, comments, and suggestions from the manager to the subordinate.
• Understudy assignment grooms an individual to take over the manager’s job by gaining experience in handling important functions of the job.
• Job rotation provides, through a variety of work experiences, the broadened knowledge and understanding required to manage more effectively.
• Lateral transfer involves horizontal movement through different departments along with upward movement in the organization.
• Project and committee assignments provide an opportunity for the individual to become involved in the study of current organizational problems and in planning and decision-making activities.
• Staff meetings enable participants to become more familiar with problems and events occurring outside their immediate area by exposing them to the ideas and thinking of other managers.
• Planned career progressions or rotations utilize all these different methods to provide employees with the training and development necessary to progress through a series of jobs requiring higher and higher levels of knowledge and/or skills.
• Interactions with a mentoradd a personal touch to an informal training process.

      
Although these methods are used most often to train managers for higher-level positions, they also provide valuable experiences for those who are being groomed for other types of positions in the organization.

Off-the-Job Experiences

While on-the-job experiences constitute the core of management training, cer­tain methods of development away from the job can be used to supplement these experiences. Off-the-job experiences may be provided on either an individual or a group basis and may be taught by means of special programs or seminars. They may include time management, assertiveness training, strategic planning, em­ployee appraisal, creative thinking, stress management, interpersonal skills, lis­tening skills, and management of change.

Case Study

Particularly useful in classroom learning situations are case studies. These docu­mented examples, which may have been developed from actual experiences within their organizations, can help managers to learn how to gather and inter­pret facts, to become conscious of the many variables on which a management decision may be based, and, in general, to improve their decision-making skills.

In-basket Training

A method used to simulate a problem situation is the in-basket technique. With this technique the participants are given several documents, each describing some problem or situation requiring an immediate response. They are thus forced to make decisions under the pressure of time and also to determine what priority to give each problem. In-basket exercises are a common instructional technique used in assessment centers.

In-basket technique
Training method in which trainees are given
several documents, each describing some
problem or situation the solution of
which requires an immediate decision

 

Leaderless Group Discussions

 

A popular assessment-center activity is leaderless group discussions. With this technique, trainees are gathered in a conference setting to discuss an assigned topic, either with or without designated group roles. The participants are given little or no instruction in how to approach the topic, nor are they told what deci­sion to reach. Leaderless group trainees are evaluated on their initiative, leader­ship skills, and ability to work effectively in a group setting.

Leaderless group discussions
Assessment-center activities in which trainees are gathered in
a conference setting to discuss an assigned topic, either
with or without designated group roles

 

Management Games

Training experiences have been brought to life and made more interesting through the development of management games. Players are faced with the task of making a series of decisions affecting a hypothetical organization. The effects that every decision has on each area within the organization can be simulated with a computer that has been programmed for the game. A major advantage of this technique is the high degree of participation it requires.
Games are now widely used as a training method. Many of them have been designed for general use, and more recently the development of industry-specific games has increased, with the result that there are now simulations for a wide variety of Industries. More and more organizations are using simulations of or­ganization dynamics as tools for change.
General Electric, for example, uses a three-day simulation to wrap up its management development program. It is a customized computerized simulation that teaches managers to balance such vari­ables as profit, cost, turnover, product schedules, and personnel changes. Prac­titioners in the area of management training have come to realize that extensive preparation, planning, and debriefing are needed to realize the potential benefits of this method.

 

Role Playing

Role playing consists of assuming the attitudes and behavior-that is, playing the role-of others, often a supervisor and a subordinate who are involved in a personnel problem. Role playing can help participants improve their ability to understand and cope with the issues of those they deal with in their daily work. It should also help them to learn how to counsel others by helping them see situ­ations from a different point of view.
Role playing is used widely in training health care personnel to be sensitive to the concerns of patients. It is also used widely in training managers to handle employee issues relating to absenteeism, performance appraisal, and conflict situations.

Laboratory Training

Laboratory training, which typically involves interpersonal interactions in a group setting, has as its primary goal the development of greater sensitivity on the part of its participants, including self-insight and an awareness of group pro­cesses. It also provides the opportunity to improve human relations skills by helping managers and supervisors to better understand themselves and others. This is achieved by encouraging trainees to share their experiences, feelings, emotions, and perceptions with other trainees or fellow employees. The ability to participate constructively in team activities is another benefit of this technique.
One variant of laboratory training is sensitivity training. As the term would indicate, this training increases a person’s awareness of his or her own behavior as it is seen by other training participants. Highly popular in the 1970s, sensitivity training came to be viewed as a form of brainwashing because of its often unwarranted intrusion into employees’ personal lives. As the popularity of sensitivity training declined, a wide variety of “New Age” seminars and self-improvement courses emerged. However, a problem with these programs is that some individu­als find that the content of the programs conflicts with their own personal moral, ethical, and religious beliefs.

 

Team Training

As organizations rely more on the use of teams to attain organizational goals the need to enhance team effectiveness has increased. Whether it be an aircrew, a research team, or a manufacturing or service unit, the contributions of the individual members of the team are not only a function of the KSAs of each individual but the interaction of the team members.
Teamwork behaviors that differentiate effective teams include effective communication, coordina­tion, mutual performance monitoring, exchange of feedback, and adaptation to varying situational demands. The fact that these behaviors are observable and measurable provides a basis for training team members to function more effec­tively in the pursuit of their goals.

 

 

Training for Diversity

There has been a remarkable increase in diversity training programs in a wide range of organizations in the past few years. Diversity training is based upon an awareness of the changing demographics of the national workforce, the chal­lenges of affirmative action, the dynamics of stereotyping, and workers’ changing values. Diversity training is aimed at teaching such skills as conducting performance appraisals with people from different cultures and teaching male supervisors how to coach female employees toward better career opportunities. For any proposed program, a thorough needs analysis is the first step. All of the diverse dimensions—race, gender, age, and so on—should be considered in the design of such a program.

 

 

Global Training

The global business environment demands employees who can work effectively across national and cultural boundaries. The extent to which organizations have gone international will determine the emphasis given to special training. United Airlines, for example, went from a domestic airline that offered just a few flights across the Pacific to a full-fledged airline serving approximately 200,000 people a day in eighteen countries.
United started a training program in July 1991 in the customer service divi­sion, which includes public-contact employees. Half of the training time is devoted to giving employees an overview of cultural differences as they relate to customer service. Before the training sessions, the scheduled participants com­plete a 200-page workbook that includes exercises on such topics as technical processing, geography, cargo, and cultural diversity.
Another important aspect of global training is the training of executives. The major international corporations have special programs for the U.S. person­nel who are assigned to overseas operations. These individuals, who are referred to as “expatriates,” require training in several areas in order to perform their as­signments successfully.

Psychological Principles of Learning

The success of a training program depends on more than the organization’s abil­ity to identify training needs and the care with which it prepares the program. If the trainees do not learn what they are supposed to learn, the training has not been successful. However, training experts believe that if trainees do not learn, it is probably only because some important learning principle has been over-looked. Because the success or failure of a training program is frequently related to this simple fact, those who develop instructional programs should recognize that they need to attend to the basic psychological principles of learning. Man­agers as well should understand that the different methods or techniques used in training personnel vary in the extent to which they utilize these principles.

 

Preconditions for Learning

Two preconditions for learning will affect the success of those who are to receive training: readiness and motivation. Trainee readiness refers to both maturity and experience factors in the trainee’s background. Prospective trainees should be screened to determine that they have the background knowledge and the skills necessary to absorb what will be presented to them.
Recognizing individual dif­ferences in readiness is as important in organizational training as it is in any other teaching situation. It is often desirable to group individuals according to their capacity to learn, as determined by test scores, and to provide an alterna­tive type of instruction for those who need it.
The receptiveness and readiness of participants in workshops and similar training programs can be increased by having them complete questionnaires about why they are attending the workshop and what they want to accomplish. Participants may also be asked to give copies of their completed questionnaires to their managers.
The other precondition for learning is that trainees be properly motivated. That is, for optimum learning trainees must recognize the need for acquiring new information or for having new skills, and they must maintain a desire to learn as training progresses. As one management consultant advises, “it’s not enough just to ‘tell.’ You also have to ‘sell’ trainees on the material they are supposed to learn if training is to succeed.”
It is also important to create a training environment that is conducive to learning. A motivating environment can be created by focusing on the trainees rather than on the trainer or training topic. Six strategies can be essential:

1.   Use positive reinforcement.
2.   Eliminate threats and punishment.
3.   Be flexible.
4.   Have participants set personal goals.
5.   Design interesting instruction.
6.   Break down physical and psychological obstacles to learning.

While most workers are motivated by certain common needs, they differ from one another in the relative importance of these needs at any given time. For example, new college graduates often have a high desire for advancement, and they have established specific goals for career progression. Training objec­tives that are clearly related to trainees’ individual needs will increase the moti­vation of employees to succeed in training programs.

 

Basic Principles of Learning for Managers

After trainees are placed in the learning situation, their readiness and motiva­tion should be assessed further. In addition, managers should understand the fol­lowing basic principles of learning.

Meaningfulness of Presentation

 

One principle of learning is that the material to be learned should be presented in as meaningful a manner as possible. The material should be arranged so that each experience builds upon preceding ones and so that the trainee is able to in­tegrate the experiences into a usable pattern of knowledge and skills.

Reinforcement

 

Anything that strengthens the trainee’s response is called reinforcement. It may be in the form of approval from the manager or the feeling of accomplishment that follows the performance; or it may simply be confirmation in programmed instruction that the trainee’s response was correct. Reinforcement is generally most effective when it occurs immediately after a task has been performed.

Reinforcement
Anything that strengthens
the trainee’s response

In recent years some work organizations have used behavior modification, a technique that operates on the principle that behavior that is rewarded-posi­tively reinforced-will be exhibited more frequently in the future, whereas be­havior that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency.

Behavior modification
Technique that operates on the principle that behavior
that is rewarded, or positively reinforced, will be exhibited
more frequently in the future, whereas behavior that is
penalized, or unrewarded, will decrease in frequency

Transfer of Training

 

Unless what is learned in the training situation is applicable to what is required on the job, the training will be of little value. The ultimate effectiveness of learning therefore is to be found in the answer to the question “To what extent does what is learned transfer to the job?” Transfer of training to the job can be facilitated by having conditions in the training program come as close as possible to those on the job.

Transfer of training
Effective application of principles learned
to what is required on the job

Another approach is to teach trainees how they can apply to the job the behaviors they have learned. Furthermore, once training is com­pleted, the manager should ensure that the work environment supports, rein­forces, and rewards the trainee for applying the new skills or knowledge.

 

Characteristics of Successful Trainers

The success of any training effort will depend in large part on the teaching skills and personal characteristics of those responsible for conducting the training. What separates the good trainers from the mediocre ones? Often a good trainer is one who shows a little more effort or demonstrates more instructional prepara­tion. However, training is also influenced by the trainer’s personal manner and characteristics. Trainees often list the following as traits of successful trainers:

• Knowledge of subject. Employees expect trainers to know their job or subject thoroughly.
• Adaptability. Some individuals learn faster or slower than others, and instruction should be matched to the trainee’s learning ability.
• Sincerity. Trainees appreciate sincerity in trainers.
• Sense of humor. Learning can be fun; very often a point can be made with a story or anecdote.
• Interest. Good trainers have a keen interest in the subject they are teaching; this interest is readily conveyed to trainees.
• Clear instructions. Naturally, training is accomplished more quickly and retained longer when trainers give clear instructions.
• Individual assistance. When training more than one employee, successful trainers always provide individual assistance.
• Enthusiasm. A dynamic presentation and a vibrant personality show trainees that the trainer enjoys training; employees tend to respond positively to an enthusiastic climate.

 

For training programs to be most successful, organizations should reward managers who prove to be excellent trainers. Too often managers are not recog­nized for their contributions to this important aspect of HRM. Likewise, train­ing personnel in the HR department should be recognized for their role in the training program.

Summary

Training begins with orientation and continues throughout an employee’s ser­vice with an organization. By participating in a formal orientation program, employees acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that increase the proba­bilities of their success with the organization. To make an orientation effective there should be close cooperation between the HR department and other depart­ments in all phases of the program, from initial planning through follow-up and evaluation.
Today we find that organizations cover a broad range of subjects and involve personnel at all levels, from orientation through management development. In addition to providing training needed for effective job performance, employers offer training in such areas as personal growth and wellness.
In order to have effective training programs the systems approach is recom­mended. The approach consists of four phases: (I) needs assessment, (2) training and development, (3) evaluation, and (4) the meeting of goals. The first step in­cludes the assessment of training needs through an analysis of the organization, a task analysis, and a person analysis. When all four phases are viewed as impor­tant, the chances for having a successful training program are greatly increased.
In the training of nonmanagerial personnel a wide variety of methods is available. On-the-job training is one of the most commonly used methods be­cause it provides the advantage of hands-on experience and an opportunity to build a relationship between supervisor and employee. In addition to on-the-job training, employers have several off-the-job methods that they can use. These include the conference or discussion method, classroom training, programmed instruction, computer-based training, simulation, closed-circuit TV, teletrain­ing, and interactive videodisc.
All of these methods can make a contribution to the training effort with relatively little cost because of the number of the number of trainees who can be accommodated. Apprenticeship training and internships are especially effective because they provide both on- and off-the-job experiences.
The training and development of managers is a multibillion-dollar business. As with nonmanagerial personnel, a wide variety of training methods is used for developing managers. On-the-job experiences include coaching, understudy as­signment, job rotation, lateral transfer, project and committee assignments, and staff meetings. Off-the-job experiences include analysis of case studies, in-basket training, leaderless group discussion, management games, role playing, laboratory training, and behavior modeling.
Special training programs emerge on the HR scene with great regularity. While there is an infinite number of possible topics, we discuss those that are currently popular. They are education in basic subjects--reading, writing, grammar, spelling, and mathematics--team training, training for diversity, global training, and crisis prevention training.
There are two fundamental preconditions for learning: readiness and moti­vation. Training readiness refers to both maturity and experience factors in the trainee’s background. Thus prospective trainees should be screened to deter­mine the state of their readiness. Trainees must also be properly motivated. They must recognize the need for new information and/or skills and must maintain a desire to learn as training progresses. Suggestions are offered on how trainers can create an environment that is conducive to learning. The basic principles of learning are meaningfulness of presentation, reinforcement, and transfer of training.

KEY TERMS
Apprenticeship training Behavior modeling (interaction management) Behavior modification Benchmarking Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Computer-managed instruction (CMI) Cooperative training In-basket technique Instructional objectives	Internship programs Leaderless group discussions On-the-job training (OJT) Organizational analysis Orientation Person analysis Reinforcement Task analysis Transfer of training